Human anatomy

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Cover Title Page Copyright Contents Preface Chapter 1 A First Look at Anatomy 1.1 History of Human Anatomy 1.2 Definition of Anatomy 1.2a: Microscopic Anatomy 1.2b: Gross Anatomy 1.3 Structural Organization of the Body 1.3a: Characteristics of Living Things 1.3b: Introduction to Organ Systems 1.4 Precise Language of Anatomy 1.4a: Anatomic Position 1.4b: Sections and Planes 1.4c: Anatomic Directions 1.4d: Regional Anatomy 1.4e: Body Cavities and Membranes 1.4f: Abdominopelvic Regions and Quadrants Chapter 2 The Cell: Basic Unit of Structure and Function 2.1 The Study of Cells 2.1a: Using the Microscope to Study Cells 2.1b: General Functions of Human Body Cells 2.2 A Prototypical Cell 2.3 Plasma Membrane 2.3a: Composition and Structure of Membranes 2.3b: Protein-Specific Functions of the Plasma Membrane 2.3c: Transport Across the Plasma Membrane 2.4 Cytoplasm 2.4a: Cytosol 2.4b: Inclusions 2.4c: Organelles 2.5 Nucleus 2.5a: Nuclear Envelope 2.5b: Nucleoli 2.5c: DNA, Chromatin, and Chromosomes 2.6 Life Cycle of the Cell 2.6a: Interphase 2.6b: Mitotic (M) Phase 2.7 Aging and the Cell Chapter 3 Embryology 3.1 Overview of Embryology 3.2 Gametogenesis 3.2a: Meiosis 3.2b: Oocyte Development (Oogenesis) 3.2c: Sperm Development (Spermatogenesis) 3.3 Pre-embryonic Period 3.3a: Fertilization 3.3b: Cleavage 3.3c: Implantation 3.3d: Formation of the Bilaminar Germinal Disc 3.3e: Formation of Extraembryonic Membranes 3.3f: Development of the Placenta 3.4 Embryonic Period 3.4a: Gastrulation 3.4b: Folding of the Embryonic Disc 3.4c: Differentiation of Ectoderm 3.4d: Differentiation of Mesoderm 3.4e: Differentiation of Endoderm 3.4f: Organogenesis 3.5 Fetal Period Chapter 4 Tissue Level of Organization 4.1 Epithelial Tissue 4.1a: Characteristics of Epithelial Tissue 4.1b: Functions of Epithelial Tissue 4.1c: Specialized Structure of Epithelial Tissue 4.1d: Classification of Epithelial Tissue 4.1e: Types of Epithelium 4.1f: Glands 4.2 Connective Tissue 4.2a: Characteristics of Connective Tissue 4.2b: Functions of Connective Tissue 4.2c: Development of Connective Tissue 4.2d: Classification of Connective Tissue 4.3 Body Membranes 4.4 Muscle Tissue 4.4a: Classification of Muscle Tissue 4.5 Nervous Tissue 4.5a: Characteristics of Neurons 4.6 Tissue Change and Aging 4.6a: Tissue Change 4.6b: Tissue Aging Chapter 5 Integumentary System 5.1 Structure and Function of the Integument 5.1a: Integument Structure 5.1b: Integument Functions 5.2 Epidermis 5.2a: Epidermal Strata 5.2b: Variations in the Epidermis 5.3 Dermis 5.3a: Papillary Layer of the Dermis 5.3b: Reticular Layer of the Dermis 5.3c: Stretch Marks, Wrinkles, and Lines of Cleavage 5.3d: Innervation and Blood Supply 5.4 Subcutaneous Layer (Hypodermis) 5.5 Epidermal Accessory Organs 5.5a: Nails 5.5b: Hair 5.5c: Exocrine Glands of the Skin 5.6 Integument Repair and Regeneration 5.7 Aging of the Integument 5.7a: Skin Cancer 5.8 Development of the Integumentary System 5.8a: Integument Development 5.8b: Nail Development 5.8c: Hair Development 5.8d: Sebaceous and Sweat Gland Development 5.8e: Mammary Gland Development Chapter 6 Cartilage and Bone 6.1 Cartilage 6.1a: Functions of Cartilage 6.1b: Growth Patterns of Cartilage 6.2 Bone 6.2a: Functions of Bone 6.3 Classification and Anatomy of Bones 6.3a: General Structure and Gross Anatomy of Long Bones 6.4 Ossification 6.4a: Intramembranous Ossification 6.4b: Endochondral Ossification 6.4c: Epiphyseal Plate Morphology 6.4d: Growth of Bone 6.4e: Blood Supply and Innervation 6.5 Maintaining Homeostasis and Promoting Bone Growth 6.5a: Effects of Hormones 6.5b: Effects of Vitamins 6.5c: Effects of Exercise 6.5d: Fracture Repair 6.6 Bone Markings 6.7 Aging of the Skeletal System Chapter 7 Axial Skeleton 7.1 Skull 7.1a: Views of the Skull and Landmark Features 7.1b: Sutures 7.1c: Bones of the Cranium 7.1d: Bones of the Face 7.1e: Nasal Complex 7.1f: Paranasal Sinuses 7.1g: Orbital Complex 7.1h: Bones Associated with the Skull 7.2 Sex Differences in the Skull 7.3 Aging of the Skull 7.4 Vertebral Column 7.4a: Divisions of the Vertebral Column 7.4b: Spinal Curvatures 7.4c: Vertebral Anatomy 7.5 Thoracic Cage 7.5a: Sternum 7.5b: Ribs 7.6 Aging of the Axial Skeleton 7.7 Development of the Axial Skeleton Chapter 8 Appendicular Skeleton 8.1 Pectoral Girdle 8.1a: Clavicle 8.1b: Scapula 8.2 Upper Limb 8.2a: Humerus 8.2b: Radius and Ulna 8.2c: Carpals, Metacarpals, and Phalanges 8.3 Pelvic Girdle 8.3a: Os Coxae 8.3b: True and False Pelves 8.3c: Sex Differences Between the Female and Male Pelves 8.4 Lower Limb 8.4a: Femur 8.4b: Patella 8.4c: Tibia and Fibula 8.4d: Tarsals, Metatarsals, and Phalanges 8.5 Aging of the Appendicular Skeleton 8.6 Development of the Appendicular Skeleton Chapter 9 Articulations 9.1 Articulations (Joints) 9.1a: Classification of Joints 9.2 Fibrous Joints 9.2a: Gomphoses 9.2b: Sutures 9.2c: Syndesmoses 9.3 Cartilaginous Joints 9.3a: Synchondroses 9.3b: Symphyses 9.4 Synovial Joints 9.4a: General Anatomy of Synovial Joints 9.4b: Types of Synovial Joints 9.4c: Movements at Synovial Joints 9.5 Selected Articulations in Depth 9.5a: Joints of the Axial Skeleton 9.5b: Joints of the Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limbs 9.5c: Joints of the Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limbs 9.6 Disease and Aging of the Joints 9.7 Development of the Joints Chapter 10 Muscle Tissue and Organization 10.1 Properties of Muscle Tissue 10.2 Characteristics of Skeletal Muscle Tissue 10.2a: Functions of Skeletal Muscle Tissue 10.2b: Gross Anatomy of Skeletal Muscle 10.2c: Microscopic Anatomy of Skeletal Muscle 10.3 Contraction of Skeletal Muscle Fibers 10.3a: The Sliding Filament Theory 10.3b: Neuromuscular Junctions 10.3c: Physiology of Muscle Contraction 10.3d: Muscle Contraction: A Summary 10.3e: Motor Units 10.4 Types of Skeletal Muscle Fibers 10.4a: Distribution of Slow, Intermediate, and Fast Fibers 10.5 Skeletal Muscle Fiber Organization 10.5a: Circular Muscles 10.5b: Parallel Muscles 10.5c: Convergent Muscles 10.5d: Pennate Muscles 10.6 Exercise and Skeletal Muscle 10.6a: Muscle Atrophy 10.6b: Muscle Hypertrophy 10.7 Levers and Joint Biomechanics 10.7a: Classes of Levers 10.7b: Actions of Skeletal Muscles 10.8 The Naming of Skeletal Muscles 10.9 Characteristics of Cardiac and Smooth Muscle 10.9a: Cardiac Muscle 10.9b: Smooth Muscle 10.10 Aging and the Muscular System 10.11 Development of the Muscular System Chapter 11 Axial Muscles 11.1 Muscles of the Head and Neck 11.1a: Muscles of Facial Expression 11.1b: Extrinsic Eye Muscles 11.1c: Muscles of Mastication 11.1d: Muscles That Move the Tongue 11.1e: Muscles of the Pharynx 11.1f: Muscles of the Anterior Neck 11.1g: Muscles That Move the Head and Neck 11.2 Muscles of the Vertebral Column 11.3 Muscles of Respiration 11.4 Muscles of the Abdominal Wall 11.5 Muscles of the Pelvic Floor Chapter 12 Appendicular Muscles 12.1 Muscles That Move the Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limb 12.1a: Muscles That Move the Pectoral Girdle 12.1b: Muscles That Move the Glenohumeral Joint/Arm 12.1c: Arm and Forearm Muscles That Move the Elbow Joint/Forearm 12.1d: Forearm Muscles That Move the Wrist Joint, Hand, and Fingers 12.1e: Intrinsic Muscles of the Hand 12.2 Muscles That Move the Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limb 12.2a: Muscles That Move the Hip Joint/Thigh 12.2b: Thigh Muscles That Move the Knee Joint/Leg 12.2c: Leg Muscles 12.2d: Intrinsic Muscles of the Foot Chapter 13 Surface Anatomy 13.1 A Regional Approach to Surface Anatomy 13.2 Head Region 13.2a: Cranium 13.2b: Face 13.3 Neck Region 13.4 Trunk Region 13.4a: Thorax 13.4b: Abdominopelvic Region 13.4c: Back 13.5 Shoulder and Upper Limb Region 13.5a: Shoulder 13.5b: Axilla 13.5c: Arm 13.5d: Forearm 13.5e: Hand 13.6 Lower Limb Region 13.6a: Gluteal Region 13.6b: Thigh 13.6c: Leg 13.6d: Foot Chapter 14 Nervous Tissue 14.1 Organization of the Nervous System 14.1a: Structural Organization: Central and Peripheral Nervous Systems 14.1b: Functional Organization: Sensory and Motor Nervous Systems 14.2 Cytology of Nervous Tissue 14.2a: Neurons 14.2b: Glial Cells 14.3 Myelination of Axons 14.3a: Myelination 14.3b: Nerve Impulse Conduction 14.4 Axon Regeneration 14.5 Nerves 14.6 Synapses 14.6a: Synaptic Communication 14.7 Neural Integration and Neuronal Pools 14.8 Development of the Nervous System Chapter 15 Brain and Cranial Nerves 15.1 Brain Development and Tissue Organization 15.1a: Embryonic Development of the Brain 15.1b: Organization of Neural Tissue Areas in the Brain 15.2 Support and Protection of the Brain 15.2a: Cranial Meninges 15.2b: Brain Ventricles 15.2c: Cerebrospinal Fluid 15.2d: Blood-Brain Barrier 15.3 Cerebrum 15.3a: Cerebral Hemispheres 15.3b: Functional Areas of the Cerebrum 15.3c: Central White Matter 15.3d: Cerebral Nuclei 15.4 Diencephalon 15.4a: Epithalamus 15.4b: Thalamus 15.4c: Hypothalamus 15.5 Brainstem 15.5a: Mesencephalon 15.5b: Pons 15.5c: Medulla Oblongata 15.6 Cerebellum 15.6a: Cerebellar Peduncles 15.7 Limbic System 15.8 Cranial Nerves Chapter 16 Spinal Cord and Spinal Nerves 16.1 Gross Anatomy of the Spinal Cord 16.2 Spinal Cord Meninges 16.3 Sectional Anatomy of the Spinal Cord 16.3a: Location and Distribution of Gray Matter 16.3b: Location and Distribution of White Matter 16.4 Spinal Nerves 16.4a: Spinal Nerve Distribution 16.4b: Nerve Plexuses 16.4c: Intercostal Nerves 16.4d: Cervical Plexuses 16.4e: Brachial Plexuses 16.4f: Lumbar Plexuses 16.4g: Sacral Plexuses 16.5 Reflexes 16.5a: Components of a Reflex Arc 16.5b: Examples of Spinal Reflexes 16.5c: Reflex Testing in a Clinical Setting 16.6 Development of the Spinal Cord Chapter 17 Pathways and Integrative Functions 17.1 General Characteristics of Nervous System Pathways 17.2 Sensory Pathways 17.2a: Functional Anatomy of Sensory Pathways 17.3 Motor Pathways 17.3a: Functional Anatomy of Motor Pathways 17.3b: Levels of Processing and Motor Control 17.4 Higher-Order Processing and Integrative Functions 17.4a: Development and Maturation of Higher-Order Processing 17.4b: Hemispheric Lateralization 17.4c: Language 17.4d: Cognition 17.4e: Memory 17.4f: Consciousness 17.5 Aging and the Nervous System Chapter 18 Autonomic Nervous System 18.1 Comparison of the Somatic and Autonomic Nervous Systems 18.2 Overview of the Autonomic Nervous System 18.3 Parasympathetic Division 18.3a: Cranial Nerves 18.3b: Sacral Spinal Nerves 18.3c: Effects and General Functions of the Parasympathetic Division 18.4 Sympathetic Division 18.4a: Organization and Anatomy of the Sympathetic Division 18.4b: Sympathetic Pathways 18.4c: Effects and General Functions of the Sympathetic Division 18.5 Other Features of the Autonomic Nervous System 18.5a: Autonomic Plexuses 18.5b: Neurotransmitters and Receptors 18.5c: Dual Innervation 18.5d: Autonomic Reflexes 18.6 CNS Control of Autonomic Function 18.7 Development of the Autonomic Nervous System Chapter 19 Senses: General and Special 19.1 Receptors 19.1a: Classification of Receptors 19.2 Tactile Receptors 19.2a: Unencapsulated Tactile Receptors 19.2b: Encapsulated Tactile Receptors 19.3 Gustation 19.3a: Gustatory Discrimination 19.3b: Gustatory Pathways 19.4 Olfaction 19.4a: Olfactory Receptor Cells 19.4b: Olfactory Discrimination 19.4c: Olfactory Pathways 19.5 Vision 19.5a: Accessory Structures of the Eye 19.5b: Eye Structure 19.5c: Visual Pathways 19.5d: Development of the Eye 19.6 Equilibrium and Hearing 19.6a: External Ear 19.6b: Middle Ear 19.6c: Inner Ear 19.6d: Development of the Ear Chapter 20 Endocrine System 20.1 Endocrine Glands and Hormones 20.1a: Overview of Hormones 20.1b: Negative and Positive Feedback Loops 20.2 Hypothalamic Control of the Endocrine System 20.3 Pituitary Gland 20.3a: Anterior Pituitary 20.3b: Posterior Pituitary 20.4 Thyroid Gland 20.4a: Synthesis of Thyroid Hormone by Thyroid Follicles 20.4b: Thyroid Gland–Pituitary Gland Negative Feedback Loop 20.4c: Parafollicular Cells 20.5 Parathyroid Glands 20.6 Adrenal Glands 20.6a: Adrenal Cortex 20.6b: Adrenal Medulla 20.7 Pancreas 20.8 Pineal Gland and Thymus 20.9 Endocrine Functions of the Kidneys, Heart, Gastrointestinal Tract, and Gonads 20.9a: Kidneys 20.9b: Heart 20.9c: Gastrointestinal Tract 20.9d: Gonads 20.10 Aging and the Endocrine System 20.11 Development of the Endocrine System 20.11a: Adrenal Glands 20.11b: Pituitary Gland 20.11c: Thyroid Gland Chapter 21 Blood 21.1 General Composition and Functions of Blood 21.1a: Components of Blood 21.1b: Functions of Blood 21.2 Blood Plasma 21.2a: Plasma Proteins 21.2b: Differences Between Plasma and Interstitial Fluid 21.3 Formed Elements in the Blood 21.3a: Erythrocytes 21.3b: Leukocytes 21.3c: Platelets 21.4 Hemopoiesis: Production of Formed Elements 21.4a: Erythropoiesis 21.4b: Thrombopoiesis 21.4c: Leukopoiesis Chapter 22 Heart 22.1 Overview of the Cardiovascular System 22.1a: Pulmonary and Systemic Circulations 22.1b: Position of the Heart 22.1c: Characteristics of the Pericardium 22.2 Anatomy of the Heart 22.2a: Heart Wall Structure 22.2b: External Heart Anatomy 22.2c: Internal Heart Anatomy: Chambers and Valves 22.3 Coronary Circulation 22.4 How the Heart Beats: Electrical Properties of Cardiac Tissue 22.4a: Characteristics of Cardiac Muscle Tissue 22.4b: Contraction of Heart Muscle 22.4c: The Heart’s Conducting System 22.5 Innervation of the Heart 22.6 Tying It All Together: The Cardiac Cycle 22.6a: Steps in the Cardiac Cycle 22.6b: Summary of Blood Flow During the Cardiac Cycle 22.7 Aging and the Heart 22.8 Development of the Heart Chapter 23 Vessels and Circulation 23.1 Anatomy of Blood Vessels 23.1a: Blood Vessel Tunics 23.1b: Arteries 23.1c: Capillaries 23.1d: Veins 23.2 Blood Pressure 23.3 Systemic Circulation 23.3a: General Arterial Flow Out of the Heart 23.3b: General Venous Return to the Heart 23.3c: Blood Flow Through the Head and Neck 23.3d: Blood Flow Through the Thoracic and Abdominal Walls 23.3e: Blood Flow Through the Thoracic Organs 23.3f: Blood Flow Through the Gastrointestinal Tract 23.3g: Blood Flow Through the Posterior Abdominal Organs, Pelvis, and Perineum 23.3h: Blood Flow Through the Upper Limb 23.3i: Blood Flow Through the Lower Limb 23.4 Pulmonary Circulation 23.5 Review of Heart, Systemic, and Pulmonary Circulation 23.6 Aging and the Cardiovascular System 23.7 Blood Vessel Development 23.7a: Artery Development 23.7b: Vein Development 23.7c: Comparison of Fetal and Postnatal Circulation Chapter 24 Lymphatic System 24.1 Functions of the Lymphatic System 24.2 Lymph and Lymph Vessels 24.2a: Lymphatic Capillaries 24.2b: Lymphatic Vessels 24.2c: Lymphatic Trunks 24.2d: Lymphatic Ducts 24.3 Lymphatic Cells 24.3a: Types and Functions of Lymphocytes 24.3b: Lymphopoiesis 24.4 Lymphatic Structures 24.4a: Lymphatic Nodules 24.4b: Lymphatic Organs 24.5 Aging and the Lymphatic System 24.6 Development of the Lymphatic System Chapter 25 Respiratory System 25.1 General Organization and Functions of the Respiratory System 25.1a: Respiratory System Functions 25.2 Upper Respiratory Tract 25.2a: Nose and Nasal Cavity 25.2b: Paranasal Sinuses 25.2c: Pharynx 25.3 Lower Respiratory Tract 25.3a: Larynx 25.3b: Trachea 25.3c: Bronchial Tree 25.3d: Respiratory Bronchioles, Alveolar Ducts, and Alveoli 25.4 Lungs 25.4a: Pleura and Pleural Cavities 25.4b: Gross Anatomy of the Lungs 25.4c: Blood Supply To and From the Lungs 25.4d: Lymphatic Drainage 25.5 Pulmonary Ventilation 25.6 Thoracic Wall Dimensional Changes During External Respiration 25.7 Innervation of the Respiratory System 25.7a: Ventilation Control by Respiratory Centers of the Brain 25.8 Aging and the Respiratory System 25.9 Development of the Respiratory System Chapter 26 Digestive System 26.1 General Structure and Functions of the Digestive System 26.1a: Digestive System Functions 26.2 Oral Cavity 26.2a: Cheeks, Lips, and Palate 26.2b: Tongue 26.2c: Salivary Glands 26.2d: Teeth 26.3 Pharynx 26.4 General Arrangement of Abdominal GI Organs 26.4a: Peritoneum, Peritoneal Cavity, and Mesentery 26.4b: General Histology of GI Organs (Esophagus to Large Intestine) 26.4c: Blood Vessels, Lymphatic Structures, and Nerve Supply 26.5 Esophagus 26.5a: Gross Anatomy 26.5b: Histology 26.6 The Swallowing Process 26.7 Stomach 26.7a: Gross Anatomy 26.7b: Histology 26.7c: Gastric Secretions 26.8 Small Intestine 26.8a: Gross Anatomy and Regions 26.8b: Histology 26.9 Large Intestine 26.9a: Gross Anatomy and Regions 26.9b: Histology 26.9c: Control of Large Intestine Activity 26.10 Accessory Digestive Organs 26.10a: Liver 26.10b: Gallbladder 26.10c: Pancreas 26.10d: Biliary Apparatus 26.11 Aging and the Digestive System 26.12 Development of the Digestive System 26.12a: Stomach, Duodenum, and Omenta Development 26.12b: Liver, Gallbladder, and Pancreas Development 26.12c: Intestine Development Chapter 27 Urinary System 27.1 General Structure and Functions of the Urinary System 27.2 Kidneys 27.2a: Gross and Sectional Anatomy of the Kidney 27.2b: Blood Supply to the Kidney 27.2c: Nephrons 27.2d: How Tubular Fluid Becomes Urine 27.2e: Juxtaglomerular Apparatus 27.2f: Innervation of the Kidney 27.3 Urinary Tract 27.3a: Ureters 27.3b: Urinary Bladder 27.3c: Urethra 27.4 Aging and the Urinary System 27.5 Development of the Urinary System 27.5a: Kidney and Ureter Development 27.5b: Urinary Bladder and Urethra Development Chapter 28 Reproductive System 28.1 Comparison of the Female and Male Reproductive Systems 28.1a: Perineum 28.2 Anatomy of the Female Reproductive System 28.2a: Ovaries 28.2b: Uterine Tubes 28.2c: Uterus 28.2d: Vagina 28.2e: External Genitalia 28.2f: Mammary Glands 28.3 Anatomy of the Male Reproductive System 28.3a: Scrotum 28.3b: Spermatic Cord 28.3c: Testes 28.3d: Ducts in the Male Reproductive System 28.3e: Accessory Glands 28.3f: Semen 28.3g: Penis 28.4 Aging and the Reproductive Systems 28.5 Development of the Reproductive Systems 28.5a: Genetic Versus Phenotypic Sex 28.5b: Formation of Indifferent Gonads and Genital Ducts 28.5c: Internal Genitalia Development 28.5d: External Genitalia Development Appendix: Answers to Challenge Yourself Questions Glossary Credits Index