Social Psychology

Description

Cover......Page 1 Title Page......Page 5 Copyright Page......Page 6 Advisory Editorial Board......Page 4 Brief Contents......Page 7 Contents......Page 9 Preface......Page 19 About the Authors......Page 23 Acknowledgements......Page 25 Guided Tour......Page 27 1 Introducing social psychology......Page 30 What is social psychology?......Page 32 Social psychology and its close neighbours......Page 33 Topics of social psychology......Page 35 Scientific method......Page 36 Experiments......Page 37 Non-experimental methods......Page 40 Data and analysis......Page 42 Physical welfare of participants......Page 46 Informed consent......Page 47 Theories and theorising......Page 48 Theories in social psychology......Page 49 Reductionism and levels of explanation......Page 52 Positivism and post-positivism......Page 53 Social psychology in the nineteenth century......Page 54 The rise of experimentation......Page 55 Later influences......Page 57 Social psychology in Europe......Page 61 About this text......Page 64 Summary......Page 66 Literature, film and TV......Page 67 Learn more......Page 68 2 Social cognition and social thinking......Page 70 A short history of cognition in social psychology......Page 72 What information is important?......Page 74 Biases in forming impressions......Page 75 Cognitive algebra......Page 77 Social schemas and categories......Page 79 Types of schemas......Page 80 Categories and prototypes......Page 81 Categorization and stereotyping......Page 84 Using schemas......Page 87 Acquiring schemas......Page 89 Changing schemas......Page 90 Salience......Page 91 Vividness......Page 92 Memory for people......Page 93 Contents of person memory......Page 94 Using person memory......Page 96 Departures from normality......Page 98 Heuristics......Page 101 Affect and emotion......Page 102 Antecedents of affect......Page 103 Consequences of affect......Page 104 Where is the ‘social’ in social cognition?......Page 105 Summary......Page 106 Learn more......Page 108 3 Attribution and social explanation......Page 110 Seeking the causes of behaviour......Page 112 People as naive psychologists......Page 113 From acts to dispositions......Page 114 People as everyday scientists......Page 115 Explaining our emotions......Page 117 Task performance attributions......Page 119 Individual differences and attributional styles......Page 120 Interpersonal relationships......Page 121 Attributional biases......Page 122 Correspondence bias and the fundamental attribution error......Page 123 The actor–observer effect......Page 125 The false consensus effect......Page 126 Self-serving biases......Page 127 Intergroup attribution......Page 129 Attribution and stereotyping......Page 132 Social representations......Page 133 Rumour and gossip......Page 135 Societal attributions......Page 136 Culture’s contribution......Page 138 Summary......Page 140 Literature, film and TV......Page 141 Learn more......Page 142 4 Self and identity......Page 144 Self and identity in historical context......Page 146 Collective self......Page 147 Symbolic interactionist self......Page 148 Self-awareness......Page 150 Self-schemas......Page 151 Regulatory focus theory......Page 153 Inferences from our behaviour......Page 155 Social comparison and self-knowledge......Page 156 Types of self and identity......Page 157 Contextual sensitivity of self and identity......Page 158 In search of self-coherence......Page 159 Processes of social identity salience......Page 160 Self-motives......Page 162 Self-enhancement......Page 163 Self-esteem......Page 165 Self-esteem and social identity......Page 168 Individual differences......Page 170 In pursuit of self-esteem......Page 171 Strategic self-presentation......Page 173 Expressive self-presentation......Page 174 Cultural differences in self and identity......Page 175 Summary......Page 177 Literature, film and TV......Page 178 Learn more......Page 179 5 Attitudes......Page 180 A short history of attitudes......Page 182 Attitude structure......Page 183 Cognitive consistency......Page 184 Cognition and evaluation......Page 185 Decision-making and attitudes......Page 187 Can attitudes predict behaviour?......Page 188 Beliefs, intentions and behaviour......Page 189 Attitude accessibility......Page 197 Attitude strength and direct experience......Page 199 Moderator variables......Page 200 Behavioural approaches......Page 203 Sources of learning......Page 206 Values......Page 207 Ideology......Page 208 Social representations......Page 209 Using attitude scales today......Page 210 Physiological measures......Page 212 Measures of overt behaviour......Page 214 Measuring covert attitudes......Page 215 Concluding thoughts......Page 217 Summary......Page 218 Literature, film and TV......Page 219 Learn more......Page 220 6 Persuasion and attitude change......Page 222 Persuasive communication......Page 224 The communicator......Page 228 The message......Page 230 The audience......Page 236 Dual-process models of persuasion......Page 238 Elaboration–likelihood model......Page 239 Heuristic–systematic model......Page 240 Tactics for enhancing compliance......Page 242 Action research......Page 247 Cognitive dissonance and attitude change......Page 249 Effort justification......Page 251 Induced compliance......Page 253 The role of self......Page 256 Alternative views to dissonance......Page 258 Resistance to persuasion......Page 259 Inoculation......Page 260 Attitude accessibility and strength......Page 262 Summary......Page 263 Literature, film and TV......Page 264 Learn more......Page 265 7 Social influence......Page 266 Compliance, obedience, conformity......Page 268 Power and influence......Page 269 Obedience to authority......Page 272 Factors influencing obedience......Page 273 The ethical legacy of Milgram’s experiments......Page 277 The formation and influence of norms......Page 278 Yielding to majority group pressure......Page 279 Who conforms? Individual and group characteristics......Page 282 Situational factors in conformity......Page 284 Processes of conformity......Page 285 Minority influence and social change......Page 288 Beyond conformity......Page 289 Behavioural style and the genetic model......Page 290 Conversion theory......Page 292 Convergent–divergent theory......Page 295 Social identity and self-categorization......Page 296 Vested interest and the leniency contract......Page 297 Two processes or one?......Page 298 Summary......Page 299 Literature, film and TV......Page 300 Learn more......Page 301 8 People in groups......Page 302 Categories and group entitativity......Page 304 Groups and aggregates......Page 305 Mere presence and audience effects: social facilitation......Page 306 Classification of group tasks......Page 313 Social loafing and social impact......Page 315 Group cohesiveness......Page 321 Group socialisation......Page 324 Norms......Page 328 Group structure......Page 332 Roles......Page 333 Status......Page 334 Communication networks......Page 336 Subgroups and crosscutting categories......Page 338 Deviants and marginal members......Page 339 Reasons for joining groups......Page 341 Motivations for affiliation and group formation......Page 342 Why not join groups?......Page 343 Summary......Page 344 Literature, film and TV......Page 345 Learn more......Page 346 9 Leadership and group decision-making......Page 348 Leadership......Page 350 Defining leadership......Page 351 Personality traits and individual differences......Page 352 Situational perspectives......Page 354 What leaders do......Page 355 Contingency theories......Page 358 Transactional leadership......Page 361 Transformational leadership......Page 364 Charisma and charismatic leadership......Page 365 Leader perceptions and leadership schemas......Page 366 Social identity and leadership......Page 367 Trust and leadership......Page 370 Gender gaps, glass ceilings and glass cliffs......Page 371 Intergroup leadership......Page 373 Rules governing group decisions......Page 375 Brainstorming......Page 376 Group memory......Page 379 Groupthink......Page 382 Group polarisation......Page 384 Jury verdicts......Page 387 Summary......Page 389 Literature, film and TV......Page 391 Learn more......Page 392 10 Prejudice and discrimination......Page 394 Nature and dimensions of prejudice......Page 396 Prejudiced attitudes and discriminatory behaviour......Page 397 Sexism......Page 399 Racism......Page 407 Ageism......Page 411 Discrimination against sexual minorities......Page 412 Discrimination on the basis of physical or mental handicap......Page 413 Tokenism......Page 415 Reverse discrimination......Page 416 Stigma......Page 417 Self-worth, self-esteem and psychological well-being......Page 418 Stereotype threat......Page 420 Attributional ambiguity......Page 421 Self-fulfilling prophecies......Page 422 Dehumanisation, violence and genocide......Page 424 Frustration–aggression......Page 427 The authoritarian personality......Page 430 Right-wing authoritarianism......Page 432 Social dominance theory......Page 433 Belief congruence......Page 434 Summary......Page 436 Literature, film and TV......Page 437 Learn more......Page 438 11 Intergroup behaviour......Page 440 Relative deprivation and social unrest......Page 442 Relative deprivation......Page 443 Social protest and collective action......Page 447 Realistic conflict......Page 448 Realistic conflict theory......Page 450 Cooperation, competition and social dilemmas......Page 451 Minimal groups......Page 456 Social identity theory......Page 458 Categorization and relative homogeneity......Page 467 Memory......Page 468 Distinctive stimuli and illusory correlation......Page 469 Optimal distinctiveness......Page 470 Intergroup emotions......Page 471 Collective behaviour and the crowd......Page 472 Early theories......Page 473 Deindividuation and self-awareness......Page 474 Emergent norm theory......Page 477 Social identity theory......Page 479 Improving intergroup relations......Page 480 Propaganda and education......Page 481 Intergroup contact......Page 482 Pluralism and diversity......Page 488 Communication and negotiation......Page 489 Summary......Page 492 Literature, film and TV......Page 493 Learn more......Page 494 12 Aggression......Page 496 Aggression in our community......Page 498 Defining aggression......Page 499 Measuring aggression......Page 500 Biological explanations......Page 501 Social and biosocial explanations......Page 504 Personality and individual differences......Page 510 Situational variables......Page 516 General aggression model......Page 520 Disadvantaged groups......Page 521 Criminality and demographics......Page 522 Subculture of violence......Page 524 Mass media......Page 525 A cognitive analysis......Page 526 Rape myths, erotica and aggression......Page 528 Domestic and intimate partner violence......Page 531 Hurting the one we ‘love’......Page 533 Role of society......Page 534 Role of the state......Page 535 Levels of explanation......Page 537 Reducing aggression......Page 539 Summary......Page 540 Literature, film and TV......Page 541 Learn more......Page 542 13 Prosocial behaviour......Page 544 Prosocial behaviour, helping behaviour and altruism......Page 546 The Kitty Genovese murder......Page 547 Biology and evolution......Page 548 Calculating whether to help......Page 550 Empathy and altruism......Page 552 Learning to be helpful......Page 554 The bystander effect......Page 557 Latané and Darley’s cognitive model......Page 558 Mood states......Page 563 Attributes of the person......Page 565 Helping to prevent crime......Page 571 Exam cheating......Page 572 Health support networks......Page 573 Receiving help......Page 574 Norms for helping......Page 575 Motives and goals......Page 576 Volunteers and martyrs......Page 577 Summary......Page 579 Literature, film and TV......Page 580 Learn more......Page 581 14 Attraction and close relationships......Page 582 Attractive people......Page 584 The role of our genes......Page 585 Attractive faces......Page 586 The search for ideals......Page 587 Proximity......Page 588 Familiarity......Page 589 Attitude similarity......Page 590 Assortative mating......Page 591 Personal characteristics......Page 594 Cultural stereotypes......Page 595 A reinforcement approach......Page 596 Relationships as a social exchange......Page 598 Comparison levels......Page 599 Social exchange, equity and justice......Page 600 Social isolation and the need to affiliate......Page 602 Effects of social deprivation......Page 603 Attachment styles......Page 605 What is love?......Page 608 Love and romance......Page 609 Labels and illusions......Page 610 No greater love......Page 612 Marriage......Page 613 Same-sex romantic relationships......Page 614 Maintaining relationships......Page 615 For better or for worse......Page 616 Relationship breakdown......Page 618 Summary......Page 621 Literature, film and TV......Page 622 Learn more......Page 623 15 Language and communication......Page 624 Language......Page 626 Language, thought and cognition......Page 627 Paralanguage and speech style......Page 629 Social markers in speech......Page 630 Language, identity and ethnicity......Page 631 Speech accommodation......Page 634 Bilingualism and second-language acquisition......Page 635 Intergroup language and communication......Page 638 Variations in non-verbal behaviour......Page 641 Using the face to express emotions......Page 642 Facial display rules......Page 644 Gaze and eye contact......Page 648 Postures and gestures......Page 650 Touch......Page 652 Up close and personal......Page 654 Impression management and deception......Page 656 Conversation......Page 658 Discourse......Page 660 Computer-mediated communication......Page 661 Summary......Page 663 Learn more......Page 664 16 Culture......Page 666 The cultural context......Page 668 Has social psychology neglected culture?......Page 669 Defining culture......Page 670 Origins in cultural anthropology......Page 671 Rise of cross-cultural psychology......Page 672 Culture, cognition and attribution......Page 673 Culture, conformity and obedience......Page 675 Culture and socialisation......Page 676 Two psyches: East meets West......Page 678 Two kinds of self......Page 679 Values......Page 681 Individualism and collectivism......Page 683 Cooperation, competition and social identity......Page 684 Collectivism and prosocial behaviour......Page 685 Relationships......Page 686 Culture through the lens of norms and identity......Page 688 Contact between cultures......Page 689 Communication, language and speech style......Page 690 Language and understanding......Page 692 Acculturation and culture change......Page 693 Testing social psychology cross-culturally......Page 695 Indigenous social psychologies......Page 696 The search for universals......Page 697 The multicultural challenge......Page 698 Summary......Page 700 Literature, film and TV......Page 701 Learn more......Page 702 B......Page 704 C......Page 705 D......Page 706 F......Page 707 I......Page 708 M......Page 709 P......Page 710 S......Page 711 U......Page 713 W......Page 714 References......Page 715 C......Page 787 G......Page 788 K......Page 789 O......Page 790 S......Page 791 Z......Page 792 A......Page 793 B......Page 794 C......Page 795 E......Page 796 G......Page 797 I......Page 798 L......Page 799 O......Page 800 P......Page 801 S......Page 802 T......Page 804 Z......Page 805