Techniques in Forage Quality Analysis

Description

The book covers different techniques and methodologies involved in the nutritional quality analysis of forages. It also discusses the nutritional quality, anti-nutritional components, factors affecting forage quality, feed processing and conservation. Different techniques and methodologies have been presented in a simplified manner. The book has been divided in separate chapters and each chapter discusses different aspect of forage quality. Further, the book also covers the topics on conservation and processing of forages and management techniques for improving the forage nutritional quality. This book is an essential source of information for research scholars, post-graduate students and scientists working on forage quality estimation and also in livestock and dairy industries. Foreword Preface Contents About the Author 1: Introduction References 2: Forage Quality and Livestock Productivity References 3: Forage Quality Indices 3.1 Nutritive Value Index (NVI) 3.2 Digestible Energy Intake (DEI) 3.3 Fill Unit and Feed Unit 3.4 Quality Index (QI) 3.5 Relative Feed Value (RFV) 3.6 Relative Forage Quality (RFQ) References 4: Forage Quality Components 4.1 Forage Quality Parameters 4.1.1 Dry Matter 4.1.2 Digestible Dry Matter (DDM) 4.1.3 Digestible Energy (DE) 4.1.4 Crude Protein (CP) 4.1.5 Crude Fiber (CF) 4.1.6 Acid Detergent Insoluble Nitrogen (ADIN) 4.1.7 Ether Extract (EE) 4.1.8 Carbohydrates 4.1.9 Ash 4.1.10 Nitrogen-Free Extract (NFE) 4.1.11 Total Digestible Nutrients (TDN) 4.1.12 Net Energy (NE) 4.1.13 Amino Acids 4.2 Forage Antiquality Parameters 4.2.1 Neutral Detergent Fiber (NDF) and Acid Detergent Fiber (ADF) 4.2.2 Polyphenolic Compounds 4.2.3 Lignin 4.3 Forage Antinutritional Parameters 4.3.1 Alkaloids 4.3.2 Saponins 4.3.3 Cyanogens 4.3.4 Oxalates 4.3.5 Protease and α-Amylase Inhibitors 4.3.6 Nitrates 4.3.7 Nonprotein Amino Acids 4.3.8 Phytoestrogens References 5: Management of Antinutrients in Forages 5.1 Lignin 5.2 Tannins 5.3 Saponins 5.4 Oxalate 5.5 Nitrates 5.6 Mimosine 5.7 Protease Inhibitor, α-Amylase Inhibitors, and Lectins References 6: General Scheme for Forage Quality Analysis 6.1 Forage Quality Analysis 6.1.1 Destructive Methods of Forage Quality Analysis 6.1.2 Nondestructive Methods of Forage Quality Analysis References 7: Laboratory Essentials for Forage Evaluation 7.1 Instrumentation for Forage Quality Analysis 7.2 Laboratory Gadgets Reference 8: Solutions and Buffers in Estimations 8.1 Preparation of Solutions 8.1.1 Representation of Concentration of Solutions 8.1.2 Stock and Working Solutions 8.1.3 Standard, Saturated and Super Saturated Solutions 8.1.4 Formulation of Acid Solutions 8.1.5 Examples of Common Laboratory Solutions 8.1.5.1 Example 1: Preparation of 1 Molar (M) Solution of Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) 8.1.5.2 Example 2: Preparation of 1 molal (m) Solution of Sodium Chloride (NaCl) 8.1.5.3 Example 3: Preparation of 1 Normal (N) Solution 8.1.5.4 Example 4: Preparation of 1 ppm (Parts per million) Solution 8.2 Preparation of Buffers 8.2.1 Concept of Acidity and Basicity 8.2.2 Oxidation and Reduction 8.2.3 pH and pH Indicators 8.2.4 Buffers 8.2.5 Preparation of Acetic Acid and Sodium Acetate Buffer (pH, 4.6) 8.2.5.1 Material and Reagents 8.2.5.2 Procedure 8.2.6 Preparation of Phosphate Buffer (pH, 6.8) 8.2.6.1 Material and Reagents 8.2.6.2 Procedure 8.2.7 Preparation of Carbonate-Bicarbonate Buffer (pH, 10.2) 8.2.7.1 Material and Reagents 8.2.7.2 Procedure 8.2.8 Preparation of some Important Buffers and Solutions References 9: Estimation of Nutritional Components in Forages 9.1 Estimation of Dry Matter (DM) in Forages 9.1.1 Dry Matter Estimation in Bulk Feed Samples 9.1.2 Dry Matter Estimation in Laboratory Samples 9.1.3 Dry Matter Estimation Silage, Haylage, and Molasses 9.2 Crude Protein Estimation by Micro-Kjeldahl´s Method (AOAC 1970) 9.3 Determination of True Protein and Nonprotein Nitrogen in Feed Samples 9.4 Estimation of Ammonia Nitrogen in Feed Samples 9.5 Estimation of Urea Nitrogen 9.6 Estimation of Total Soluble Proteins by Lowry´s Method (Lowry et al. 1951) 9.7 Determination of Crude Fiber in Forages (AOAC 1965) 9.8 Determination of Crude Fat (Ether Extract) 9.9 Identification and Quantification of Fatty Acids by Gas Liquid Chromatography (Metcalfe et al. 1966) 9.10 Estimation of Total Carbohydrates (Hedge and Hofreiter 1962) 9.11 Colorimetric Determination of Reducing Sugars (Liu and Jiang 2007) 9.12 Estimation of Reducing Sugars by Nelson-Somogyi´s and DNS Method (Somogyi 1952; Miller 1959) 9.12.1 Nelson-Somogyi´s Method 9.12.2 Dinitrosalicylic (DNS) Acid Method 9.13 Determination of Nitrogen-Free Extract (NFE) 9.14 Estimation of Starch 9.15 Estimation of Nonstarch Polysaccharides 9.16 Estimation of Cellulose in Forages 9.17 Determination of In Vitro, In Sacco, and In Vivo Digestibility of Forages 9.17.1 In Vitro Dry Matter Digestibility 9.17.2 Estimation of In Vitro Dry Matter Digestibility by Two-Stage Digestion Method (Tilley and Terry 1963) 9.17.3 In Sacco Determination of Forage Digestibility 9.17.4 Determination of In Vivo Digestibility of Feed 9.18 Calculation of Organic Matter Digestibility from Dry Matter Digestibility 9.19 Calculation of Metabolizable Energy 9.20 Protein Profiling of Forages Using SDS-PAGE (Laemmli 1970) 9.21 Forage Quality Analysis Using Near-Infrared Technology References 10: Estimation of Antiquality and Antinutritional Factors in Forages 10.1 Determination of Different Antiquality Factors in Forages 10.1.1 Determination of Neutral Detergent Fiber (NDF) (Van Soest and Wiens 1967) 10.1.2 Estimation of Acid Detergent Fiber (ADF) (Van Soest and Wiens 1967) 10.1.3 Estimation of Cellulose and Silica in Forages (Van Soest and Wine 1968) 10.1.4 Estimation of Lignin Content in Forages 10.1.4.1 Determination of Acid Detergent Lignin (ADL) (Van Soest and Wiens 1967) 10.1.4.2 Estimation of Permanganate Lignin in Forages 10.1.4.3 Quantification of Lignin by the Thioglycolic Acid Method, Acetyl Bromide Method, and Klason Method (Moreira-Vilar et ... Protein-Free Cell Wall Preparation Thioglycolic Acid Method Acetyl Bromide Method Klason Method 10.2 Determination of Different Antinutritional Factors in Forages 10.2.1 Estimation of Oxalate Content (Mahadevan 1979) 10.2.2 Determination of Oxalic Acid in Forage Samples Using HPLC (Rehman et al. 2007) 10.2.3 Estimation of Saponin Content in Forages (Akhidue and Monago 2002) 10.2.4 Estimation of Cyanogenic Glycosides in Forages (AOAC 1995) 10.2.4.1 Qualitative Test 10.2.4.2 Titrimetric Method for Quantitative Test Acid Titration Method Alkaline Titration Method 10.2.5 Estimation of Phenols (Makkar 2003) 10.2.6 Estimation of Tannin Content Using Folin Denis Reagent (AOAC 1995) 10.2.7 Determination of Condensed Tannins (Proanthocyanidins) 10.2.8 Determination of Condensed Tannins Using Vanillin Reagent (Price et al. 1978) 10.2.9 Characterization of Phenolic Compounds by Thin-Layer Chromatography (TLC) 10.2.9.1 Characterization of Condensed Tannins Preparation of Plant Material 10.2.9.2 Analysis of Condensed and Hydrolysable Tannins by TLC 10.2.10 Determination of Gallotannins in Forages Using HPLC 10.2.10.1 Preparation of Sample for the Determination of Free Gallic Acid 10.2.10.2 Preparation of Sample for the Determination of Gallic Acid Present in Free and in Gallotannin Forms 10.2.10.3 HPLC Conditions for Analysis 10.2.11 Determination of Protein-Precipitable Phenolics 10.2.12 Protein-Binding Capacity by Filter Paper Assay (Dawra et al. 1988) 10.2.13 Estimation of Nitrates and Nitrites in Forages (Wiseman and Jacobson 1965) 10.2.14 Estimation of Nitrate-N (AOAC 1970) 10.2.15 Estimation of Trypsin Inhibitor in Forages (Roy and Rao 1971) 10.2.16 Estimation of Mimosine Content (Mastumoto and Sherman 1951) 10.2.17 Estimation of Alkaloids 10.2.18 Determination of Phytic Acid Content (Wheeler and Ferrel 1971) 10.2.19 Estimation of Nitric Oxide (Marcocci et al. 1994) References 11: Estimation of Mineral Content in Forages 11.1 Determination of Ash Content (AOAC 2000) 11.2 Estimation of Acid Insoluble Ash 11.3 Estimation of Calcium Content (Piper 1950) 11.4 Estimation of Phosphorus Content (Fiske and Subbarao 1925) 11.5 Estimation of Potassium Content (Jackson 1962) 11.6 Mineral Analysis Using Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (Smith and Storey 1976) 11.7 Flame Photometric Determination of Sodium and Potassium (Havre 1961) 11.8 Flame Photometric Determination of Calcium (Havre 1961) 11.9 Determination of Zinc by Colorimetric Dithizone Method (Reed and Cummings 1940) 11.10 Colorimetric Determination of Iron (Moss and Mellon 1942) References 12: Estimation of Phytochemicals and Enzyme Activities in Forages 12.1 Estimation of Phytochemicals in Forages 12.1.1 Estimation of Total Flavonoids (Reis et al. 2011) 12.1.2 Estimation of Flavanols 12.1.3 Estimation of Chlorophyll Content in Forages (Arnon 1949) 12.1.4 Estimation of Antioxidant Activity (Sharma and Bhat 2009) 12.1.5 Estimation of Ortho-Dihydroxyphenols (Nair and Vaidyanathan 1964) 12.1.6 Estimation of Hydrogen Peroxide (Sinha 1972) 12.1.7 Estimation of Malondialdehyde (MDA) (Heath and packer 1968) 12.1.8 Estimation of Glutathione Content (Beutler et al. 1963) 12.1.9 Estimation of Proline Content (Bates et al. 1973) 12.2 Determination of Polyphenol Oxidase (PPO) Activity (Augustin et al. 1985) 12.3 Estimation of Peroxidase (POD) Enzyme Activity (Summer and Gjessing 1943) 12.4 Estimation of Catalase Activity (Barber 1980) 12.5 Estimation of L-Phenylalanine Ammonia Lyase (PAL) Activity 12.6 Estimation of Tyrosine Ammonia Lyase (TAL) Activity (Rao and Nayudu 1979) 12.7 Estimation of Polyamine Oxidase (PAO) and Diamine Oxidase (DAO) Activity 12.7.1 Estimation of Polyamine Oxidase Activity (Holmstead et al. 1961) 12.7.2 Estimation of Polyamine Oxidase Activity (Holmstead et al. 1961) 12.8 Estimation of Ascorbate Oxidase Activity (Felton and summers 1993) 12.9 Estimation of Glutathione Reductase Activity (Schaedle and Bassham 1977) 12.10 Estimation of Dehydroascorbate Reductase Activity (Nakano and Asada 1981) 12.11 Estimation of Ascorbate Peroxidase Activity (Asada and Takahashi 1987) 12.12 Estimation of Guaiacol Peroxidase Activity (Shannon et al. 1966) 12.13 Estimation of Superoxide Dismutase (SOD) Activity (Becana et al. 1986) References 13: Quality Evaluation of Natural Grasslands and Pastures 13.1 Determination of Quality of Grasslands and Pastures Using Remote Sensing Technology 13.1.1 Proximal Remote Sensing 13.1.2 Aerial and Space-Based Remote Sensing 13.2 UAV Hyperspectral Imagery Technique to Quantify Rangeland Biomass and Nitrogen Content References 14: Nutritional Quality of Important Forages 14.1 Nutritional Quality of Important Forage Legumes 14.2 Nutritional Quality of Important Forage Grasses 14.3 Nutritional Quality of Important Fodder Trees References 15: Conservation and Processing of Forages 15.1 Feed Pelletization 15.2 Hay Making 15.2.1 Process of Hay Making 15.2.2 Some Considerations During Hay Making 15.3 Silage Preparation 15.3.1 Advantages of Silage Preparation 15.3.2 Forage Material for Silage Making 15.3.3 Silage Preparation Process 15.3.3.1 Procedure 15.3.4 Characteristics of Good Quality Silage 15.3.5 Some Considerations During Silage Making 15.4 Baleage or Haylage 15.5 Processing of Grains for Livestock Feeding 15.5.1 Cracking, Dry Rolling, and Grinding 15.5.2 High Moisture (Reconstitution) Treatment Followed by Rolling 15.5.3 Pelleting 15.5.4 Steam Flaking 15.5.5 Pressure Flaking 15.5.6 Extrusion 15.5.7 Ensiling 15.5.8 Micronization 15.5.9 Chemical Treatment 15.5.10 Popping 15.5.11 Gelatinization 15.5.12 Roasting References 16: Factors Affecting Forage Quality 16.1 Effect of Preharvesting Conditions 16.1.1 Seasonal Variations 16.1.2 Temperature and Altitude 16.1.3 Soil Properties and Fertilization 16.1.4 Maturity Stage 16.1.5 Crop Species 16.1.6 Forage Cultivar (Variety) 16.1.7 Foliar Diseases and Insect Damage 16.1.8 Antinutritional Factors 16.2 Postharvest Conditions and Forage Quality 16.2.1 Respiration and Temperature 16.2.2 Moisture Content 16.2.3 Fermentation 16.2.4 Aerobic Deterioration 16.2.5 Rainfall 16.3 Effect of Microbes on Nutritional Quality of Forages 16.3.1 Fungal Contamination 16.3.2 Fungal Propagule Count 16.3.3 Mycotoxins 16.3.3.1 Aspergillus 16.3.3.2 Penicillium 16.3.3.3 Fusarium References 17: Forage Nutritional Quality Management 17.1 Preharvest Managements for Modulating Nutritional Quality of Forages 17.2 Postharvest Management Practices 17.2.1 Physical Treatments 17.2.2 Chemical Treatments 17.2.2.1 Alkali Treatment 17.2.2.2 Ammoniation 17.2.2.3 Urea Treatment 17.2.2.4 Acid Treatment 17.2.3 Biological Treatments 17.2.3.1 Lignocellulolytic Fungi White-Rot Fungi Brown-Rot Fungi 17.2.3.2 Bacterial Treatment 17.2.4 Exogenous Fibrolytic Enzymes (EFE) 17.2.5 Supplementation 17.3 Modern Techniques for Nutritional Quality Enhancement in Forages References Appendix Units and Their Symbols Decimal Multiples and Submultiples Unit of Mass Units of Volume Units of Length Constant for Acid and Bases Forage Value of Common Species in Grasslands and Pastures Abbreviations Glossary