Viral and Antiviral Nanomaterials: Synthesis, Properties, Characterization, and Application (Emerging Materials and Technologies)

Description

Viral and Antiviral Nanomaterials summarizes the synthesis, properties, characterization, and application of viral and antiviral nanomaterials by using interdisciplinary subject matters ranging from materials science to biomedical science. This book highlights attainments in utilizing nanomaterials as powerful tools for the treatment of viral infections in plants, animals, and human beings. It reviews the adopted strategies for designing viral and antiviral nanomaterials for medical applications including cancer therapy and drug delivery. It also explains the different kinds of antiviral nanosized structures, their chemistries, and their attributes that enable them as suitable targets for nanotherapeutics. Each contributor of this book has prepared the book contents in a comprehensive manner for readers to use their research findings to improve the healthcare of living beings. Features: Reviews the novel tools for synthesis and characterization of nanomaterials as viral and antiviral agents Explores the different applications of currently available nanomaterials for the treatment of viral infections Investigates the role of antiviral nanodrugs in human and plant systems Addresses the activity of nanostructures in drug delivery systems for cancer treatment Allows readers from various fields of study to access the advanced research and practices across traditional frontiers Discusses viral nanomaterials as the viable future of antiviral drugs and nanovaccines in animals and human beings This authoritative book is of exceptional relevance to postgraduate scholars, researchers, and scientists interested in nanomedicine, biomedical science, materials science, biopharmaceutical technology, microbiology, and virology to improve virus- and cancer-based therapeutic tools for animal and human welfare. Cover Half Title Series Page Title Page Copyright Page Dedication Contents Preface Editors Contributors Section I: Nanosized Materials in Virology 1. Viruses as Nanomaterials 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Plant Viruses as Nanomaterials 1.2.1 Cowpea Mosaic Virus (CPMV) 1.2.2 Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TMV) 1.2.3 Brome Mosaic Virus (BMV) 1.2.3.1 BMV in Encapsulation Strategies for Imaging/Therapeutics 1.2.4 Hibiscus Chlorotic Ringspot Virus (HCRSV) 1.3 Bacterial Viruses (Bacteriophages) as Nanomaterials 1.3.1 M13 Bacteriophage 1.3.2 T4 Bacteriophage 1.3.2.1 Synthesis of Fe Based Nanocomposite by T4 Bacteriophage Virus 1.4 Animal Viruses as Nanomaterials 1.4.1 Encapsulation of Gold Nanoparticles by Simian Virus 40 Capsids 1.4.2 Encapsulation of Fe3O4 Nanoparticles into Genetically Modified Hepatitis B Core Virus-Like Particles 1.5 Characterization of Nanomaterials 1.5.1 Phase Characterization of Nanomaterials 1.5.1.1 X-Ray Diffraction of Synthesized Nanomaterials 1.5.2 Morphological Characterization of Nanomaterials 1.5.2.1 Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) 1.5.2.2 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) 1.5.2.3 Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) 1.5.3 Spectroscopical Characterization of Nanomaterials 1.5.3.1 UV-Visible Spectroscopy 1.5.3.2 Fourier Transformed Infrared (FTIR) Spectroscopy 1.5.3.3 X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) 1.5.3.4 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Spectroscopy 1.6 Applications of Viruses as Nanomaterials 1.6.1 Biomedical Applications 1.6.2 Magnetic Resonance Imaging 1.6.3 Drug Delivery by Virus Based Nanoparticles 1.6.4 Virus as Catalysts 1.6.5 Light-Harvesting System Based on the TMV 1.6.6 Vaccines for Cancer 1.6.7 Vaccines for Neurological Diseases and Addiction 1.7 Conclusion References 2. Synthesis and Characterization of Nanoparticles as Potential Viral and Antiviral Agents 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Nanoparticles Used as Viral and Antiviral Agents 2.3 Antiviral Nanoparticles 2.3.1 Metal Nanoparticles 2.3.1.1 Synthesis of Metal Nanoparticles 2.3.1.2 Characterization of Metal Nanoparticles 2.3.1.3 Mechanism Underlying the Antiviral Action of Metal Nanoparticles 2.3.2 Organic Nanoparticles 2.3.3 Antiviral Potential of Nanoparticles against Various Viruses 2.4 Viral Nanoparticles 2.4.1 Synthesis of VNPs 2.4.2 Modification of VNPs and VLPs 2.4.2.1 Bioconjugation 2.4.2.2 Encapsulation 2.4.2.3 Biomineralization 2.4.2.4 Genetic Engineering 2.4.3 Applications of VNPs and VLPs 2.4.3.1 Vaccines 2.4.3.2 Imaging 2.4.3.3 Targeted Delivery 2.5 Conclusion References 3. Biogenic Synthesis of Nanoparticulate Materials for Antiviral Applications 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Synthesis of Nanoparticles 3.2.1 Physical Method 3.2.1.1 Ball Milling Technique 3.2.1.2 Laser Ablation Technique 3.2.1.3 Physical Vapour Deposition Technique 3.2.1.4 Electrical Arc-Discharge Technique 3.2.2 Chemical Method 3.2.2.1 Electrochemical Technique 3.2.2.2 Photochemical Technique 3.2.2.3 Microwave-Assisted Technique 3.2.2.4 Sonochemical Technique 3.2.3 Biological Method 3.2.3.1 Bacteria Mediated Technique 3.2.3.2 Algae Mediated Technique 3.2.3.3 Fungi-Mediated Technique 3.2.3.4 Plant-Mediated Technique 3.2.4 Other Synthesis Methods 3.2.4.1 Microemulsions 3.2.4.2 Nanoliposomes 3.2.4.3 Nanoemulsions 3.3 Characterization 3.3.1 Transmission Electron Microscopy 3.3.2 Confocal Imaging 3.3.3 Real-Time Polymerase Chain Reaction 3.3.4 Plaque Assay 3.3.5 β-Galactosidase 3.3.6 Flow Cytometry 3.3.7 Western Blot 3.3.8 Computer Simulation 3.4 Conclusion and Prospects References 4. Nanoparticle Synthesis and Administration Routes for Antiviral Uses 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Overview about Nanoparticles 4.3 Synthesis of Different Nanoparticles 4.4 Administration Routes of Nanoparticles for Antiviral use 4.5 Characterization of the Nanoparticles 4.5.1 Microscopy Techniques 4.5.2 Dynamic Light Scattering 4.5.3 Zeta Potential 4.5.4 Thermal Analysis 4.5.5 Spectroscopy Techniques 4.6 Conclusion References 5. Role of Nanostructures in Inhibition and Treatment of Viral Infections 5.1 Introduction 5.1.1 Viral Infection and Mechanism of Pathogenesis 5.1.2 Virus and Immune System 5.1.3 Overview of Nanochemistry 5.1.4 Nanosystem and Antiviral Mechanism 5.2 Characteristics of Nanocarriers and their Application in Viral Therapeutics 5.2.1 Liposomes 5.2.2 Niosomes and Ethosome 5.2.3 Polymeric Nanoparticles 5.2.3.1 Nanocapsules 5.2.3.2 Nanospheres 5.2.4 Micelles 5.2.5 Dendrimers 5.2.6 Solid Lipid NPs 5.2.7 Cyclodextrin Derivatives 5.2.8 Nano Emulsions and Suspensions 5.3 Nanotherapeutics against Specific Viral Infections 5.3.1 HIV 5.3.2 HSV 5.3.3 Influenza Virus 5.3.4 HBV Infection 5.4 Conclusion Acknowledgements References Section II: Viral Nanomaterials: Biomedical Applications 6. Photocatalytic Inactivation of Pathogenic Viruses Using Metal Oxide and Carbon-Based Nanoparticles 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Metal Oxide Nanoparticles 6.2.1 Modification to Metal Oxide Nanoparticles 6.2.2 Mechanism 6.3 Carbon-Based Nanoparticles 6.3.1 Fullerenes 6.3.2 Carbon Dots 6.3.3 Carbon Nanotubes 6.3.4 Graphene Oxides 6.4 Conclusion and Future Perspectives Acknowledgements References 7. Non-Photocatalytic and Photocatalytic Inactivation of Viruses Using Antiviral Assays and Antiviral Nanomaterials 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Classification and Infection Mechanism of Viruses 7.3 Antiviral Assay Methods for Nanoparticles 7.3.1 Confocal Imaging Assay 7.3.2 Transmission Electron Microscopy 7.3.3 Real-Time Polymerase Chain Reaction 7.3.4 Flow Cytometry Assay 7.3.5 Plaque Assay 7.3.6 Tissue Culture Infectious Dose Assay 7.3.7 β-Galactosidase Assay 7.3.8 Western Blot Assay 7.3.9 In Vivo Analysis 7.3.10 Computer Simulation 7.4 Non-Photocatalytic Inactivation of Viruses 7.4.1 Silver Nanoparticles 7.4.1.1 Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles 7.4.1.2 Silver Nanoparticles as Antiviral Agents 7.4.1.3 Antiviral Mechanism of Silver Nanoparticles 7.4.1.4 Toxicity of Silver Nanoparticles 7.4.1.4.1 Cellular Toxicity 7.4.1.4.2 Environmental Risk 7.4.2 Gold Nanoparticles 7.5 Photocatalytic Inactivation of Viruses 7.5.1 Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles 7.5.2 Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles 7.5.3 Graphene-Based Nanomaterials 7.5.4 Quantum Dots 7.5.5 Graphitic Carbon Nitride 7.5.5.1 Viral Inactivation Mechanism of g-C3N4 7.5.6 Other Nanoparticles as Antiviral Agents 7.6 Concerning Problems with Nanoparticles as Antiviral Agents 7.7 Conclusions and Perspectives References 8. Application of Viral Nanomaterials in Medicine 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Viral Nanomaterials 8.2.1 Types of Nanomaterials 8.2.2 Engineering of VNPs 8.3 Application of Nanotechnology in Medicine 8.3.1 Nanomedicine 8.3.2 VLPs Role in Immune Responses 8.3.3 Nanoparticles' Role against Cancers 8.3.4 Nanotechnology Role in the COVID-19 Pandemic 8.4 Conclusion Acknowledgements References 9. Virus-Based Nanocarriers for Targeted Drug Delivery 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Types of Nanocarriers 9.1.1 Polymeric Nanoparticles 9.1.2 Polymeric Micelles 9.1.3 Dendrimers 9.1.4 Liposomes 9.1.5 Viral-Based Nanocarriers 9.3 Virus-Based Drug-Delivery Systems 9.3.1 Drug Delivery 9.3.2 The Package Processes of Drugs into Virus-Based Nanocarriers 9.3.2.1 Using Supramolecular Chemistry for Packaging of Drugs 9.3.2.2 Using Chemical Attachment for Loading Drugs 9.4 Applications of Virus-Based Nanocarriers in Medicine 9.4.1 Medical-Imaging Applications 9.4.2 Tumour-Targeting Applications 9.4.3 Vaccination Applications 9.5 Conclusion References Section III: Antiviral Nanotherapeutics 10. Antiviral Nanomaterials in Therapeutic Interventions 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Overview of Viruses 10.3 Nanomaterials for Antiviral Therapeutics 10.3.1 Nanomaterials as Delivery Agents in Antiviral Therapeutics 10.3.2 Nanomaterials as Therapeutic Agents against Viruses 10.4 Conclusion References 11. In Vivo Study of Anti-Influenza Effect of Silver Nanoparticles in a Mouse Model 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Biological Activity of Silver Nanoparticles 11.3 The Intervention of Silver Nanoparticles in Mammalian Copper Metabolism 11.4 Influence of the Modulated Copper Status on Virus Infection: Proof of Concept 11.5 Conclusions Acknowledgments References 12. Antiviral Drugs as Tools for Nanomedicine 12.1 Introduction 12.1.1 Cancer Epidemiology: Global and Indian Scenario 12.1.2 Understanding the Cancer 12.1.3 Causes of Cancer 12.1.4 Types of Cancer 12.1.5 Conventional and Emerging Cancer Therapies 12.2 Viruses, Cancer and Treatment 12.2.1 Mechanism of Viral Cancer 12.2.2 Human Cancer-Causing Viruses 12.2.3 Current Viral Vaccines and Drugs 12.3 Nanotechnology in Cancer Treatment 12.4 Current Overview of Antiviral Therapy in Cancer 12.5 Conclusion References 13. Emerging Nanotechnology-Enabled Approaches to Mitigate COVID-19 Pandemic 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Diagnosis of SARS CoV-2: Currently Used Methods and Limitations 13.3 Use of Nontechnology for Detection and Diagnosis of SARS-CoV-2 13.3.1 Nanotechnology-Based Point of Care (PoC) Testing for COVID-19 Detection 13.3.2 Nanotechnology Based Biosensors for Detection of COVID-19 13.3.3 Microfluidic Devices 13.3.4 Colorimetric Assays 13.3.5 Magnetic Nanoparticle-Based Separation 13.3.6 Detection Based on Biomolecules 13.3.6.1 Nucleic Acid and Antibody Based Biosensors 13.3.6.2 Aptamer-Based Biosensors 13.4 Nanomaterial-Based Vaccine Development and Immunomodulation 13.4.1 Virus-Like Particles (VLP) 13.4.2 Other Nano-Based Vaccines 13.4.3 Nano-Based Vaccine Delivery 13.5 Nano-Based Therapeutics and Drugs Delivery for COVID-19 13.5.1 Nano-Based Drug Delivery 13.5.2 Nanoparticles for Blocking Cell Attachment and Viral Entry 13.5.3 Nanoparticles as a Blocking Agent for Viral Replication and Proliferation 13.6 Nanoparticles Based Disinfectants with Viricidal Effects 13.6.1 Nanomaterials for Surface Decontamination 13.7 Future Perspectives References 14. Applications of Antiviral Nanoparticles in Cancer Therapy 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Antiviral Nanoparticles 14.2.1 Types of Antiviral NPs 14.2.1.1 Inorganic/Metal NPs 14.2.1.2 Organic NPs 14.3 Cancer Vaccines 14.4 Applications of Antiviral Nanoparticles in Cancer 14.4.1 Chemotherapy 14.4.2 Radiation Therapy 14.4.3 Gene Therapy 14.4.4 Targeted Therapy 14.4.5 Immunotherapy 14.5 AVNPs in Cancer Diagnosis 14.5.1 Preparation of Dendrimers 14.5.2 Properties of Dendrimers 14.5.3 Dendrimers in MRI 14.6 AVNPs in Vaccines and Theranostics 14.7 AVNP Mediated Cancer Therapy 14.7.1 Hepatocellular Carcinoma and AVNP-Mediated Treatment 14.7.2 Current Therapy Approaches to Treat HCC 14.7.3 AVNPs-Mediated Therapy in HCCs 14.7.3.1 Doxorubicin 14.7.3.2 Sorafenib 14.7.3.3 RNA-Based 14.7.3.4 Polymeric NPs 14.8 Conclusions Acknowledgments References 15. Nano Delivery of Antiviral Plant Bioactives as Cancer Therapeutics 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Antiviral Plant Bioactives with Anticancer Activity 15.2.1 Polyphenols 15.2.2 Flavanoids 15.2.3 Carotenoids 15.2.4 Terpenes 15.2.5 Alkaloids 15.2.6 Glycosides 15.2.7 Thiosulfinates 15.2.8 Glucoside 15.2.9 Other Plant Molecules 15.3 Nano Drug-Delivery Systems for Cancer Therapeutics 15.3.1 Targeted Nano Drug-Delivery System 15.3.1.1 Passive Drug Targeting (PDT) 15.3.1.2 Active Drug Targeting (ADT) 15.3.2 Stimuli-Responsive NDDS (SR-NDDS) 15.3.2.1 Endogenous Stimuli-Responsive NDDS 15.3.2.2 Exogenous Stimuli-Responsive NDDS 15.3.2.3 Multi Stimuli-Responsive (MSR) Nano Drug-Delivery System 15.3.3 Controlled-Release NDDS 15.3.3.1 Polymers Used in Controlled-Release NDDS 15.3.3.2 Lipids Used in Controlled-Release NDDS 15.4 Conclusion References 16. Conjugated Graphene Gold Nanocomposites for Cancer Therapy 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Synthesis of AuNPs 16.2.1 Hard-Template Approach 16.2.2 Electrochemical Approach 16.2.3 Photochemical Synthesis 16.2.4 Seedless-Growth Approach 16.2.5 Seed-Mediated Approach 16.2.5.1 Presence of AgNO3 in Seed-Mediated Approach 16.2.5.2 Absence of AgNO3 in Seed-Mediated Approach 16.3 Synthesis Protocols for Gr-AuNPs based Nanocomposites 16.3.1 Synthesis of Gr/ GO/rGO Supported Au Nanocomposites 16.3.1.1 In Situ Synthesis of Gr/ GO/rGO Supported Au Nanocomposites 16.3.1.2 Ex Situ Synthesis of Gr/GO/rGO Supported Au Nanocomposites 16.3.2 Synthesis of Gr/ GO/rGO Coated/Wrapped Au Nanocomposites 16.4 Advantages of Gr/AuNPs based Composites for Cancer Treatment 16.4.1 Biocompatibility 16.4.2 Photo-Thermal Activities 16.5 Toxicity Aspects of Gold Nanoparticles (AuNPs) and Graphene (Gr) and its Derivatives (GO, rGO) 16.5.1 Cytotoxicity of AuNPs 16.5.1.1 Correlation between Particle Sizes of AuNPs and Cytotoxicity 16.5.1.2 AuNPs Surface Charges 16.5.1.3 AuNPs Surface Modification and Cytotoxicity 16.5.2 Toxicity Aspects of Graphene (Gr) and its Derivatives (GO, rGO) 16.6 Application of Gr-AuNPs in Cancer Treatment 16.6.1 Detection of Cancer 16.6.1.1 Immuno-Sensors 16.6.1.2 Geno Sensors 16.6.1.3 Enzyme Based Sensors 16.6.2 Photothermal Therapy (PTT) 16.6.3 Photo-Dynamic Therapy (PDT) 16.6.4 Drug Delivery 16.6.5 Combined Therapy 16.6.6 Theranostic Application 16.7 Environmental/Eco-Toxicological Hazards of Gr/GO/rGO Based Nanocomposites 16.8 Challenges and Future Perspective of Gr-AuNPs based Composites for Cancer Treatment 16.9 Conclusion References 17. Surface Engineered Graphene Oxide and Its Derivatives: A Prospective Nano‐Structured Carbon as Anticancer Agent 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Surface Engineered Graphene Oxide (GO) and its Derivatives Incorporated Nanomedicines for Cancer Prevention 17.3 GO as Versatile Tool for Anticancer Medicine 17.3.1 Functionalized GO and Its Derivatives for Targeted Drug Delivery 17.3.2 Functionalized GO and Its Derivatives for Nontargeted Drug Delivery 17.4 GO as Multipurpose Tool for Gene Delivery 17.4.1 Functionalized GO and Its Derivatives for Targeted Gene Delivery 17.4.2 Functionalized GO and Its Derivatives for Nontargeted Gene Delivery 17.5 Combating Cytotoxicity of GO and its Derivatives: Platform to Ensure Biocompatibility 17.6 Facts Behind the Toxicity Profile of GO and Its Derivatives 17.6.1 Dimensional Aspect 17.6.2 Concentration 17.6.3 Charge 17.6.4 Surface Structure 17.6.5 Functionalization 17.6.6 Impurities 17.6.7 Protein/Corona 17.7 Research Gaps and Future Studies 17.8 Conclusion References 18. Antiviral Nanomaterials as Potential Targets for Malaria Prevention and Treatment 18.1 Introduction 18.2 Current Methods of Preparation of Nanoparticles 18.2.1 Preparation of Polymeric Nanoparticles 18.2.1.1 Nanoprecipitation 18.2.1.2 Milling Technique 18.2.1.3 Extrusion Method 18.2.1.4 Supercritical Fluid Technology 18.2.1.5 Salting-Out Method 18.2.1.6 Ionic Gelation Technique 18.2.1.7 Sonication Method 18.2.2 Preparation of Lipid Nanoparticles 18.2.2.1 High-Pressure Homogenization (HPH) 18.2.2.2 Solvent-Emulsification Evaporation (SEE) 18.2.2.3 Emulsification and Solvent Displacement Method 18.3 Administration of Antiviral Drugs 18.3.1 Oral Route 18.3.2 Nasal Route 18.3.3 Brain Route 18.3.4 Nose-Brain Route 18.3.5 Ocular Route 18.3.6 Topical and Transdermal Route 18.3.7 Parenteral Route 18.3.8 Vaginal Route 18.4 Uptake and Processing of Antiviral Nanoparticles 18.5 Therapeutic Approach for Malaria Treatment 18.6 Conclusion and Future Prospects References Index