American Government and Politics Today

Description

Ford/Bardes/Schmidt/Shelley's American Government and Politics Today, Enhanced 18th Edition, transforms you from casual observer to well-informed participant. It equips you with the knowledge to make informed choices and start playing an active role in the decision-making process. This popular text is known nationwide for its balanced, unbiased and modern coverage of constitutional, governmental, political, social and economic structures and their processes. Completely up to date, the Enhanced 18th edition includes expansive coverage of the 2018 elections, gender issues and social media. Engaging examples bring chapter concepts to life, while "Politics in Practice" features give you an up-close view of people taking political action. In addition, MindTap, Cengage's fully online learning solution, is available and fully integrated with the text. Cover Half Title page Title page Copyright page Brief Contents Detailed Contents A Letter to Instructors A Letter to Students Resources Acknowledgments Reviewers About the Authors Career Opportunites: Political Science PART I: The American System CHAPTER 1: One Republic—Two Americas? Politics and Government Why Is Government Necessary? Fundamental Values Liberty Order and the Rule of Law Individualism Equality Property Why Choose Democracy? Direct Democracy as a Model The Limits of Direct Democracy A Democratic Republic Principles of Democratic Government Who Really Rules in America? Majoritarianism Elitism Pluralism Political Ideologies The Traditional Political Spectrum In the Middle: Liberalism and Conservatism The Difficulty of Defining Liberalism and Conservatism Liberalism Conservatism Libertarianism The Challenge of Change Demographic Change in a Democratic Republic Ethnic Change Globalization The Technology Revolution Environmental Change CHAPTER 2: The Constitution The Colonial Background Separatists, the Mayflower, and the Compact More Colonies, More Government British Restrictions and Colonial Grievances The Colonial Response The First Continental Congress The Second Continental Congress Declaring Independence The Resolution of Independence July 4, 1776—The Declaration of Independence Universal Truths Natural Rights and a Social Contract The Rise of Republicanism The Articles of Confederation: The First Form of Government Accomplishments under the Articles Weaknesses of the Articles Shays’ Rebellion and the Need for Revision of the Articles Drafting the Constitution Who Were the Delegates? The Working Environment Factions among the Delegates Politicking and Compromises The Virginia Plan The New Jersey Plan The “Great Compromise” The Three-Fifths Compromise Other Issues Working toward Final Agreement The Madisonian Model—Separation of Powers The Madisonian Model—Checks and Balances The Executive A Federal Republic The Final Document The Difficult Road to Ratification The Federalists Push for Ratification The Federalist Papers The Anti-Federalist Response The March to the Finish Did the Majority of Americans Support the Constitution? State Ratifying Conventions Support Was Probably Widespread The Bill of Rights A “Bill of Limits” No Explicit Limits on State Government Powers Altering the Constitution: The Formal Amendment Process Many Amendments Are Proposed; Few Are Accepted Limits on Ratification The National Convention Provision Informal Methods of Constitutional Change Congressional Legislation Presidential Actions Judicial Review Not a Novel Concept Allows the Court to Adapt the Constitution Interpretation, Custom, and Usage CHAPTER 3: Federalism Three Systems of Government A Unitary System A Confederal System A Federal System Why Federalism? A Practical Constitutional Solution Benefits for the United States Allowance for Many Political Subcultures Arguments against Federalism The Constitutional Basis for American Federalism Powers of the National Government The Necessary and Proper Clause Inherent Powers Powers of the State Governments Concurrent Powers Prohibited Powers The Supremacy Clause Vertical and Horizontal Checks and Balances Interstate Relations The Full Faith and Credit Clause Privileges and Immunities Interstate Extradition Defining Constitutional Powers—The Early Years McCulloch v. Maryland (1819) The Constitutional Questions Marshall’s Decision Gibbons v. Ogden (1824) The Background of the Case Marshall’s Ruling States’ Rights and the Resort to Civil War The Shift Back to States’ Rights War and the Growth of the National Government The War Effort The Civil War Amendments The Continuing Dispute over the Division of Power Dual Federalism and the Retreat of National Authority A Return to Normal Conditions The Role of the Supreme Court The New Deal and Cooperative Federalism The “New Deal” The End of Dual Federalism Cooperative Federalism Methods of Implementing Cooperative Federalism Categorical Grants Feeling the Pressure—The Strings Attached to Federal Grants Block Grants Federal Mandates The Politics of Federalism What Has National Authority Accomplished? Civil Rights and the War on Poverty Why Would the States Favor the Status Quo? Federalism Becomes a Partisan Issue The “New Federalism” New Judicial Federalism Federalism in the Twenty-First Century Federalism and the Supreme Court Today Reining in the Commerce Power State Sovereignty and the Eleventh Amendment Tenth Amendment Issues Federalism and State Immigration Policy Other Federalism Cases PART II: Civil Rights and Civil Liberties CHAPTER 4: Civil Liberties Civil Liberties and the Bill of Rights Extending the Bill of Rights to State Governments Incorporation of the Fourteenth Amendment Freedom of Religion The Separation of Church and State—The Establishment Clause Aid to Church-Related Schools A Change in the Court’s Position School Vouchers The Issue of School Prayer—Engel v. Vitale The Debate over School Prayer Continues Prayer Outside the Classroom The Ten Commandments Forbidding the Teaching of Evolution Religious Speech Public Expression of Religion Blasphemy and Free Speech Rights The Free Exercise Clause The Religious Freedom Restoration Act Freedom of Expression No Prior Restraint WikiLeaks, Edward Snowden, and Classified Information on the Internet The Protection of Symbolic Speech The Protection of Commercial Speech Permitted Restrictions on Expression Clear and Present Danger Modifications to the Clear and Present Danger Rule Unprotected Speech: Obscenity Definitional Problems Protecting Children Pornography on the Internet Should “Virtual” Pornography Be Deemed a Crime? Unprotected Speech: Slander Campus Speech Student Activity Fees Campus Speech and Behavior Codes Hate Speech on the Internet Freedom of the Press Defamation in Writing A Free Press versus a Fair Trial: Gag Orders Films, Radio, and TV The Right to Assemble and to Petition the Government Online Assembly More Liberties under Scrutiny: Matters of Privacy Information Privacy Privacy Rights and Abortion Roe v. Wade The Controversy Continues Privacy Rights and the “Right to Die” What If No Living Will Exists? Physician-Assisted Suicide Privacy Rights versus Security Issues The USA PATRIOT Act Civil Liberties Concerns The Great Balancing Act: The Rights of the Accused versus the Rights of Society Extending the Rights of the Accused Miranda v. Arizona Exceptions to the Miranda Rule Video Recording of Interrogations The Exclusionary Rule The Death Penalty Cruel and Unusual Punishment? The Death Penalty Today CHAPTER 5: Civil Rights African Americans and the Consequences of Slavery in the United States Ending Servitude The Civil Rights Acts of 1865 to 1875 The Limitations of the Civil Rights Laws The Civil Rights Cases Plessy v. Ferguson: Separate but Equal Voting Barriers Extralegal Methods of Enforcing White Supremacy The End of the Separate-but-Equal Doctrine Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka “With All Deliberate Speed” Reactions to School Integration Integration Today The Resurgence of Minority Schools The Civil Rights Movement King’s Philosophy of Nonviolence Nonviolent Demonstrations Marches and Demonstrations Another Approach—Black Power The Escalation of the Civil Rights Movement Modern Civil Rights Legislation The Civil Rights Act of 1964 The Voting Rights Act of 1965 Urban Riots The Civil Rights Act of 1968 and Other Housing-Reform Legislation Consequences of Civil Rights Legislation Political Representation by African Americans The U.S. Census and Civil Rights Lingering Social and Economic Disparities Race-Conscious or Post-Racial Society? #BlackLivesMatter Race and Confederate Symbols Women’s Campaign for Equal Rights Early Women’s Political Movements Women’s Suffrage Associations The Second Wave of the Women’s Movement The Equal Rights Amendment Three-State Strategy Challenging Gender Discrimination in the Courts and Legislatures Women in Politics Today Gender-Based Discrimination in the Workplace Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 Sexual Harassment Wage Discrimination The Equal Pay Act of 1963 Voting Rights and the Young Immigration, Latinos, and Civil Rights Mexican American Civil Rights The Continued Influx of Immigrants Illegal Immigration Citizenship Accommodating Diversity with Bilingual Education Affirmative Action The Bakke Case Further Limits on Affirmative Action State Ballot Initiatives Making Amends for Past Discrimination through Reparations Special Protection for Older Americans Securing Rights for Persons with Disabilities The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 Limiting the Scope and Applicability of the ADA The Rights and Status of Gays and Lesbians Progress in the Gay and Lesbian Rights Movement State and Local Laws Targeting Gays and Lesbians Gays and Lesbians in the Military Same-Sex Marriage Defense of Marriage Act A Short History of State Recognition of Gay Marriages Shift in Public Opinion for Marriage Equality PART III: People and Politics CHAPTER 6: Public Opinion and Political Socialization Defining Public Opinion Public Opinion and Policymaking How Public Opinion Is Formed: Political Socialization Models of Political Socialization The Family and the Social Environment Education as a Source of Political Socialization Peers and Peer Group Influence Opinion Leaders’ Influence Political Change and Political Socialization The Impact of the Media The Influence of Political Events Political Preferences and Voting Behavior Demographic Influences Education The Influence of Economic Status Religious Influence: Denomination Religious Influence: Religiosity and Evangelicals The Influence of Race and Ethnicity The Gender Gap Reasons for the Gender Gap Geographic Region Measuring Public Opinion The History of Opinion Polls Sampling Techniques Representative Sampling The Principle of Randomness Problems with Polls Sampling Errors Poll Questions Push Polls Technology, Public Opinion, and the Political Process Public Opinion and the Political Process Political Culture and Public Opinion Political Trust and Support for the Political System Public Opinion about Government CHAPTER 7: Interest Groups Interest Groups: A Natural Phenomenon Interest Groups and Social Movements Why So Many? Why Do Americans Join Interest Groups? Incentives Solidary Incentives Material Incentives Purposive Incentives Types of Interest Groups Economic Interest Groups Business Interest Groups Agricultural Interest Groups Labor Interest Groups Public-Employee Unions Interest Groups of Professionals The Unorganized Poor Environmental Groups Public-Interest Groups Nader Organizations Other Public-Interest Groups Other Interest Groups Foreign Governments What Makes an Interest Group Powerful? Size and Resources Leadership Cohesiveness Interest Group Strategies Direct Techniques Lobbying Techniques The Ratings Game Building Alliances Campaign Assistance Indirect Techniques Generating Public Pressure Using Constituents as Lobbyists Unconventional Forms of Pressure Regulating Lobbyists The Results of the 1946 Act The Reforms of 1995 Lobbying Scandals Interest Groups and Representative Democracy Interest Group Influence CHAPTER 8: Political Parties What Is a Political Party and What Do Parties Do? Getting Organized: The Three Components of a Party Party Organization The National Convention The State Party Organization Local Party Organizations The Party-in-Government Divided Government The Limits of Party Unity Party Polarization A History of Political Parties in the United States The First-Party System: The Development of Parties, 1789–1828 The Era of Good Feelings The Second-Party System: Democrats and Whigs, 1828–1860 The Third-Party System: Republicans’ Rise to Power and the Civil War, 1860–1896 “Rum, Romanism, and Rebellion” The Triumph of the Republicans The Fourth-Party System: The Progressive Interlude and Republican Dominance, 1896–1932 The Fifth-Party System: The New Deal and Democratic Dominance, 1932–1968 A Post-Party System Era, 1968–Present? Red State, Blue State Partisan Trends in the Elections of 2012 and 2016 The Two Major U.S. Parties Today Who Belongs to Each Political Party? Differences in Party Policy Priorities The 2012 Elections—Shaping the Parties for 2014 and 2016 The 2016 Primaries and the Rise of “Outsiders” Why Has the Two-Party System Endured? The Historical Foundations of the Two-Party System Political Socialization and Practical Considerations The Winner-Take-All Electoral System Proportional Representation State and Federal Laws Favoring the Two Parties The Role of Minor Parties in U.S. Politics Ideological Third Parties Splinter Parties The Impact of Minor Parties Influencing the Major Parties Affecting the Outcome of an Election Mechanisms of Political Change Realignment Realignment: The Myth of Dominance Realignment: The Myth of Predictability Is Realignment Still Possible? Dealignment Independent Voters Not-So-Independent Voters Tipping Tipping in Massachusetts Tipping in California Political Parties of the Future CHAPTER 9: Campaigns, Voting, and Elections Who Wants to Be a Candidate? Why They Run The Nomination Process Who Is Eligible? Who Runs? Women as Candidates The Twenty-First-Century Campaign The Changing Campaign The Professional Campaign Staff The Strategy of Winning Candidate Visibility and Appeal Taking the Public Pulse The Media and Political Campaigns Financing the Campaign Regulating Campaign Financing The Federal Election Campaign Act Further Reforms in 1974 Buckley v. Valeo Interest Groups and Campaign Finance: Reaction to New Rules PACs and Political Campaigns Campaign Financing beyond the Limits Contributions to Political Parties Independent Expenditures Issue Advocacy The Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002 Key Elements of the New Law The Rise of the 527s Citizens United, Freedom Now, and the Future of Campaign Finance Regulation Running for President: The Longest Campaign Reforming the Primaries Front-Loading the Primaries The Rush to Be First The 2016 Primary Season On to the National Convention Seating the Delegates Convention Activities On to the General Election Voting in the United States Turning Out to Vote The Effect of Low Voter Turnout Is Voter Turnout Declining? Factors Influencing Who Votes Why People Do Not Vote Uninformative Media Coverage and Negative Campaigning The Rational Ignorance Effect Plans for Improving Voter Turnout Legal Restrictions on Voting Historical Restrictions Property Requirements Further Extensions of the Franchise Is the Franchise Still Too Restrictive? Current Eligibility and Registration Requirements Extension of the Voting Rights Act Primary Elections, General Elections, and More Primary Elections Closed Primary Open Primary Blanket Primary Runoff Primary General and Other Elections How Are Elections Conducted? Office-Block and Party-Column Ballots Vote Fraud The Danger of Fraud Mistakes by Voting Officials The Importance of the Voting Machine The Electoral College The Choice of Electors The Electors’ Commitment Criticisms of the Electoral College CHAPTER 10: The Media and Politics A Brief History of the Media’s Role in United States Politics The Rise of the Popular Press Mass-Readership Newspapers News Delivered over the Airwaves The Revolution in Electronic Media The Special Relationship between the Media and the Executive The Internet and Social Media The Role of the Media in Our Society The Media’s Political Functions Provide Information Identify Problems and Set the Public Agenda Investigate and Report on Wrongdoing Socialize New Generations Providing a Political Forum for Dialogue and Debate The Media’s Impact: Political Campaigns Advertising Management of News Coverage Campaign Debates The Internet and Social Media The Media’s Impact: Voters The Government’s Regulatory Relationship with Media Government Regulation of the Media Controlling Ownership of the Media Increased Media Concentration Government Control of Content Control of Broadcasting Government Control of the Media during the Second Gulf War The Government’s Attempt to Control the Media after the September 11, 2001, Attacks Net Neutrality The Public’s Right to Media Access Bias in the Media Do the Media Have a Partisan Bias? A Racial Bias? A Gender Bias? PART IV: Political Institutions CHAPTER 11: The Congress The Functions of Congress The Lawmaking Function The Representation Function The Trustee View of Representation The Instructed-Delegate View of Representation Service to Constituents The Oversight Function The Public-Education Function The Conflict-Resolution Function The Powers of Congress Enumerated Powers Powers of the Senate Constitutional Amendments The Necessary and Proper Clause Checks on Congress House–Senate Differences Size and Rules Debate and Filibustering Prestige Congresspersons and the Citizenry: A Comparison Congressional Elections Candidates for Congressional Elections Congressional Campaigns and Elections Presidential Effects The Power of Incumbency Congressional Apportionment Gerrymandering Redistricting after the 2010 Census Nonpartisan Redistricting “Minority-Majority” Districts Constitutional Challenges Changing Directions Perks and Privileges Permanent Professional Staffs Privileges and Immunities under the Law Congressional Caucuses: Another Source of Support The Committee Structure The Power of Committees Types of Congressional Committees Standing Committees Select Committees Joint Committees Conference Committees The House Rules Committee The Selection of Committee Members The Formal Leadership Leadership in the House The Speaker The Majority Leader The Minority Leader Whips Leadership in the Senate How Members of Congress Decide The Conservative Coalition Polarization and Gridlock “Crossing Over” Logrolling, Earmarks, and “Pork” How a Bill Becomes Law How Much Will the Government Spend? Preparing the Budget Congress Faces the Budget Budget Resolutions CHAPTER 12: The President Who Can Become President? The Process of Becoming President The Many Roles of the President Head of State Chief Executive The Powers of Appointment and Removal The Power to Grant Reprieves and Pardons Commander in Chief Wartime Powers The War Powers Resolution Chief Diplomat Diplomatic Recognition Proposal and Ratification of Treaties Executive Agreements Chief Legislator Legislation Passed Saying No to Legislation The Line-Item Veto Congress’s Power to Override Presidential Vetoes Other Presidential Powers The President as Party Chief and Superpolitician The President as Chief of Party The President’s Power to Persuade Constituencies and Public Approval Presidential Constituencies Public Approval George W. Bush and the Public Opinion Polls Obama and Trump: Public Approval “Going Public” Special Uses of Presidential Power Emergency Powers Executive Orders Executive Privilege Limiting Executive Privilege Clinton’s Attempted Use of Executive Privilege Abuses of Executive Power and Impeachment The Executive Organization The Cabinet Members of the Cabinet Presidential Use of Cabinets The Executive Office of the President The White House Office The Office of Management and Budget The National Security Council “Policy Czars” The Vice Presidency The Vice President’s Job Strengthening the Ticket Supporting the President Presidential Succession The Twenty-fifth Amendment When the Vice Presidency Becomes Vacant CHAPTER 13: The Bureaucracy The Nature of Bureaucracy Public and Private Bureaucracies Models of Bureaucracy Weberian Model Acquisitive Model Monopolistic Model Bureaucracies Compared The Size of the Bureaucracy The Organization of the Federal Bureaucracy Cabinet Departments Independent Executive Agencies Independent Regulatory Agencies The Purpose and Nature of Regulatory Agencies Agency Capture Deregulation and Reregulation Government Corporations Challenges to the Bureaucracy Reorganizing to Stop Terrorism Dealing with Natural Disasters Staffing the Bureaucracy Political Appointees The Aristocracy of the Federal Government The Difficulty in Firing Civil Servants History of the Federal Civil Service To the Victor Belong the Spoils The Civil Service Reform Act of 1883 The Civil Service Reform Act of 1978 Federal Employees and Political Campaigns Modern Attempts at Bureaucratic Reform Sunshine Laws before and after September 11 Information Disclosure Curbs on Information Disclosure Sunset Laws Privatization Incentives for Efficiency and Productivity Government Performance and Results Act Bureaucracy Has Changed Little Saving Costs through E-Government Helping Out the Whistleblowers Laws Protecting Whistleblowers The Problem Continues Bureaucrats as Politicians and Policymakers The Rule-Making Environment Waiting Periods and Court Challenges Controversies Negotiated Rule Making Bureaucrats Are Policymakers Iron Triangles Issue Networks Congressional Control of the Bureaucracy Ways Congress Does Control the Bureaucracy Reasons Why Congress Cannot Easily Oversee the Bureaucracy CHAPTER 14: The Courts Sources of American Law Constitutions Statutes and Administrative Regulations Case Law Judicial Review The Federal Court System Basic Judicial Requirements Jurisdiction Standing to Sue Types of Federal Courts U.S. District Courts U.S. Courts of Appeals The U.S. Supreme Court Specialized Federal Courts and the War on Terrorism The FISA Court Alien “Removal Courts” Parties to Lawsuits Procedural Rules The Supreme Court at Work Which Cases Reach the Supreme Court? Factors That Bear on the Decision Granting Petitions for Review Deciding Cases Decisions and Opinions When There Are Eight Justices The Selection of Federal Judges Judicial Appointments Federal District Court Judgeship Nominations Federal Courts of Appeals Appointments Supreme Court Appointments The Special Role of the Chief Justice Partisanship and Judicial Appointments The Senate’s Role Policymaking and the Courts Judicial Review Judicial Activism and Judicial Restraint Strict versus Broad Construction Ideology and the Rehnquist Court The Roberts Court What Checks Our Courts? Executive Checks Legislative Checks Constitutional Amendments Rewriting Laws Public Opinion Judicial Traditions and Doctrines Hypothetical and Political Questions The Impact of the Lower Courts PART V: Public Policy CHAPTER 15: Domestic Policy The Policymaking Process Agenda Building Policy Formulation Policy Adoption Policy Implementation Policy Evaluation Health Care The Rising Cost of Health Care Advanced Technology The Government’s Role in Financing Health Care Medicare Medicaid Why Has Medicaid Spending Exploded? Medicaid and the States The Uninsured The 2010 Health-Care Reform Legislation Environmental Policy The Environmental Movement Cleaning Up the Air and Water The National Environmental Policy Act Curbing Air Pollution Water Pollution The Endangered Species Act Sustainability Global Climate Change The Kyoto Protocol COP21: The New Agreement The Global Warming Debate Energy Policy Energy and the Environment Nuclear Power—An Unpopular Solution Alternative Approaches to the Energy Crisis Poverty and Welfare The Low-Income Population The Antipoverty Budget Basic Welfare Welfare Controversies Other Forms of Government Assistance Homelessness—Still a Problem Immigration The Continued Influx of Immigrants Minority Groups’ Importance on the Rise The Advantages of High Rates of Immigration Attempts at Immigration Reform The Range of Federal Public Policies CHAPTER 16: Economic Policy Prosperity Is the Goal Unemployment Unemployment Becomes an Issue Measuring Unemployment Inflation The Business Cycle The Economic Toolkit Economic Theory Guides Policy Laissez-Faire Economics Keynesian Economic Theory Supply-Side Economics Fiscal Policy Discretionary Fiscal Policy The Thorny Problem of Timing Government Borrowing The Public Debt in Perspective The Politics of Taxes Federal Income Tax Rates Loopholes and Lowered Taxes Progressive and Regressive Taxation Who Pays? Entitlements: The Big Budget Item Social Security and Medicare Social Security Is Not a Pension Fund What Will It Take to Salvage Social Security? Raise Taxes Consider Other Options Privatize Social Security Monetary Policy Organization of the Federal Reserve System Loose and Tight Monetary Policies Time Lags for Monetary Policy Monetary versus Fiscal Policy Globalization and World Trade Imports and Exports The Impact of Import Restrictions on Exports Quotas and Tariffs Free-Trade Areas and Common Markets The World Trade Organization What the WTO Does Sending Work Overseas Facing the Future CHAPTER 17: Foreign Policy and National Security Facing the World: Foreign and Defense Policy National Security Policy Diplomacy Who Makes Foreign Policy? Constitutional Powers of the President War Powers Treaties and Executive Agreements Other Constitutional Powers Informal Techniques of Presidential Leadership Other Sources of Foreign Policymaking The Department of State The National Security Council The Intelligence Community Covert Actions Criticisms of the Intelligence Community The Department of Defense (DOD) Congress Balances the Presidency Domestic Sources of Foreign Policy Elite and Mass Opinion Interest Group Politics in Global Affairs The Major Themes of American Foreign Policy The Formative Years: Avoiding Entanglements The Monroe Doctrine The Spanish–American War and World War I The Era of Internationalism The Cold War Containment Policy Superpower Relations The Cuban Missile Crisis A Period of Détente The Reagan–Bush Years The Dissolution of the Soviet Union The War on Terror The Iraq and Afghanistan Wars The Persian Gulf—The First Gulf War The Iraq War Occupied Iraq The Situation Worsens The Bush Surge The “Necessary” War Global Policy Challenges The Emerging World Order The Threat of Terrorism Terrorism and Regional Strife Terrorist Attacks against Foreign Civilians London Bombings Nuclear Weapons The United States and the Soviet Union Nuclear Proliferation The United States and Regional Conflicts The Middle East The Arab Spring Iranian Ambitions Central and South America War and HIV/AIDS in Africa PART VI: State and Local Politics CHAPTER 18: State and Local Government The U.S. Constitution and the State Governments Why Are State Constitutions So Long? The Constitutional Convention and the Constitutional Initiative The State Executive Branch A Weak Executive Increasing the Governor’s Power The Governor’s Veto Power The State Legislature Legislative Apportionment Minority Representation Political Gerrymandering Term Limits for State Legislators Ethics and Campaign Finance Reform in the States Direct Democracy: The Initiative, Referendum, and Recall The Initiative The Referendum The Recall The State Judiciary Trial Courts Appellate Courts Judicial Elections and Appointments How Local Government Operates The Legal Existence of Local Government Local Governmental Units Municipalities Counties Towns and Townships Special Districts and School Districts Consolidation of Governments How Municipalities Are Governed The Commission Plan The Council-Manager Plan The Mayor-Administrator Plan The Mayor-Council Plan Machine versus Reform in City Politics Paying for State and Local Government State and Local Government Expenditures State and Local Government Revenues The Struggle to Balance State Budgets Getting into Trouble: Borrowing Too Much Getting into Trouble: Poor Productivity Getting into Trouble: Health-Care Costs States Recover from the Recession States as Policy Pioneers Appendix A: The Declaration of Independence Appendix B: The Constitution of the United States Appendix C: The Federalist Papers Nos. 10 and 51 Glossary Index