Experimental Techniques in Magnetism and Magnetic Materials

Description

This book is written to introduce experimental magnetism in a comprehensive manner to advanced undergraduate, postgraduate, and doctoral students pursuing studies in physics, material sciences, and engineering. It is an excellent resource providing an overview of the various experimental techniques in magnetism and magnetic materials. The text is partitioned into three parts. Part I deals with a brief history of magnetism and magnetic materials along with their role in modern society. A concise account of their current technological applications is also provided. Part II focusses on the basic phenomena of magnetism. Part III consists of chapters discussing a variety of experimental practices needed to study the microscopic as well as macroscopic aspects of different kinds of magnetic phenomena and materials. Cover Experimental Techniques in Magnetism and Magnetic Materials Title Copyright Dedication Contents Preface Part I Introduction to Magnetism and Magnetic Materials 1 A Short History of Magnetism and Magnetic Materials Bibliography 2 Role of Magnetism and Magnetic Materials in Modern Society Bibliography Part II Basic Phenomenology of Magnetism 3 Magnetic Moment and the Effect of Crystal Environment 3.1 Magnetic Moment and Magnetization 3.1.1 Magnetic Moment 3.1.2 Magnetization 3.2 Classical Electromagnetism, Magnetic Moment, and Angular Momentum 3.3 Precession of Magnetic Moment 3.4 Magnetization, Magnetic Field, and Magnetic Susceptibility 3.5 Orbital and Spin Angular Momentum of Electron and Magnetic Moment 3.6 Magnetism of Isolated Atoms and Ions 3.7 Diamagnetism 3.8 Paramagnetism 3.8.1 Classical theory of paramagnetism 3.8.2 Quantum theory of paramagnetism 3.8.3 van Vleck paramagnetism 3.9 Ground State of Ions and Hund’s Rules 3.9.1 Fine structure 3.9.2 Hund’s rules 3.9.3 Russel–Saunders coupling versus j – j coupling 3.10 Effect of Crystal Environment on Magnetic Ions 3.10.1 Crystal fields and their origin 3.10.2 Quenching of orbitals 3.10.3 Jahn–Teller effect 4 Exchange Interactions and Magnetism in Solids 4.1 Coupling between Spins 4.2 Origin of Exchange Interactions 4.3 Physical Meaning of Exchange Energy 4.4 Direct Exchange 4.5 Indirect Exchange in Insulating Solids 4.5.1 Superexchange 4.5.2 Double exchange 4.5.3 Anisotropic exchange interaction: Dzyaloshinski–Moriya interaction 4.6 Indirect Exchange in Metals 5 Magnetically Ordered States in Solids 5.1 Ferromagnetism 5.1.1 Magnetic susceptibility in a ferromagnet 5.2 Antiferromagnetism 5.2.1 Magnetic susceptibility in an antiferromagnet 5.3 Ferrimagnetism 5.4 Helical Magnetic Order 5.5 Spin-Glass Order 5.6 Spin Waves in Ferromagnets 5.7 Domains and Domain Wall 5.8 Magnetic Skyrmion 5.9 Magnetic Anisotropy 5.10 Magnetization Process in Ferromagnets Bibliography Part III Experimental Techniques in Magnetism 6 Conventional Magnetometry 6.1 Force Method 6.1.1 Gouy and Faraday balance 6.1.2 Alternating gradient magnetometer 6.1.3 Cantilever beam magnetometer 6.2 Induction Method 6.2.1 Vibrating sample magnetometer 6.2.2 Superconducting quantum interference device magnetometer 6.2.3 SQUID-VSM 6.2.4 Extraction magnetometer 6.3 AC Susceptibility 6.4 Summary Bibliography 7 Magnetic Resonance and Relaxation 7.1 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Experimental details of NMR Experimental techniques to measure spin–spin relaxation time Experimental techniques to measure spin–lattice relaxation time Information obtained from NMR experiments 7.2 Electron Paramagnetic Resonance Principles of EPR and experimental details EPR lineshape and relaxation phenomena Spin-Hamiltonian in EPR experiments 7.3 Ferromagnetic Resonance Principles of FMR and experimental details FMR lineshape and relaxation phenomena 7.4 Muon Spin Rotation Muon spin rotation (μSR) experiment Muons and the study of magnetism 7.5 Mössbauer Spectroscopy 7.6 Summary Bibliography 8 Optical Methods 8.1 Magneto-optical Effects 8.1.1 Principles of magneto-optical effects 8.1.2 Experimental methods 8.2 Scanning Near-field Optical Microscopy 8.2.1 Principle of scanning near-field optical microscope 8.2.2 Magneto-optical measurement using scanning near-field optical microscope 8.3 Brillouin Light Scattering 8.3.1 Principles of Brillouin light scattering 8.3.2 Experimental method for Brillouin light scattering 8.4 Summary Bibliography 9 Neutron Scattering 9.1 Neutron Sources and Neutron Scattering Facilities Reactor-based neutron source Spallation neutron source 9.2 Basics of Neutron Scattering 9.2.1 Neutron cross sections 9.2.2 Conservation of energy and momentum 9.2.3 Master formula for neutron scattering 9.2.4 Nuclear scattering 9.2.5 Magnetic scattering 9.2.6 Classification of magnetic structures Commensurate magnetic structures Incommensurate magnetic structures 9.3 Neutron Scattering Experiments Identification of the signal of magnetic origin 9.3.1 Neutron powder diffraction 9.4 Single-Crystal Experiments 9.5 Polarized Neutron Scattering 9.6 Magnetic Small-Angle Neutron Scattering 9.7 Inelastic Neutron Scattering Direct geometry time-of-flight technique Backscattering crystal analyzer The Energy Range 0–1000 meV and Magnetic Excitations Spectrometers for coherent spectroscopy Spectrometers for incoherent spectroscopy 9.8 Polarized Neutron Reflectometry 9.9 Summary Bibliography 10 X-ray Scattering 10.1 Magnetic and Resonant X-ray Diffraction 10.1.1 Classical formalism of magnetic X-ray scattering 10.1.2 Quantum mechanical theory of magnetic and resonant X-ray scattering Non-resonant X-ray scattering 10.1.3 Resonant X-ray scattering 10.1.4 X-ray magnetic circular dichroism and X-ray magnetic linear dichroism 10.2 Summary Bibliography 11 Microscopic Magnetic Imaging Techniques 11.1 Electron-Optical Methods 11.1.1 Scanning electron microscopy Spin-polarized scanning electron microscopy Spin-polarized low energy electron microscopy 11.1.2 Transmission electron microscopy Magnetic structure imaging by TEM Lorentz transmission electron microscopy Fresnel and Foucault modes of imaging Low angle electron diffraction Differential phase contrast microscopy Electron holography 11.2 Imaging with Scanning Probes 11.2.1 Magnetic force microscopy 11.2.2 Spin-polarized scanning tunneling microscopy 11.2.3 Scanning Hall probe and scanning SQUID microscopy 11.3 Magnetic Imaging Using Synchrotron Radiation Sources 11.3.1 Scanning X-ray microscopy 11.3.2 Transmission X-ray microscopy 11.3.3 X-ray photoelectron microscopy 11.4 Summary Bibliography 12 Nano-Scale Magnetometry with Nitrogen Vacancy Centre 12.1 Physics of the Nitrogen-Vacancy (NV) Centre in Diamond 12.2 A Brief Introduction to the Principle of NV Magnetometry 12.3 Diamond Materials and Microscopy 12.4 Optically Detected Magnetic Resonance 12.5 NV Magnetometers 12.5.1 Samples for NV Magnetometry 12.5.2 DC magnetometer 12.5.3 AC Magnetometer 12.5.4 Sensitivity of NV magnetometers 12.5.5 Some experimental results 12.6 Summary Bibliography Appendix A Magnetic Fields and Their Generation A.1 Steady Field A.2 Pulsed-Field Bibliography Appendix B Units in Magnetism Magnetization Magnetic susceptibility Magnetic polarization Magnetization hysteresis Bibliography Appendix C Demagnetization Field and Demagnetization Factor C.1 Phenomenology C.2 Experimental aspects Bibliography Index