Cultural Typologies of Love

Description

This timely volume offers an integrative approach and a culturally diverse view of love conceptions, experiences, and expressions, building on both individual and cultural typologies of love. It comprehensively presents cultural and cross-cultural studies on how culture affects love, and offers a systematic description of types and cultural models of love. The comprehensive reviews of methodology and findings provide a solid empirical basis for the creation of formal typologies. This book will be useful for researchers interested in cross-cultural studies of love across many disciplines. Its accessible language also makes it ideal for undergraduate and graduate students. Readers will gain a comprehensive understanding of: Cultural conceptions of love and methods for their researchMultiple perspectives in the studies of love across world culturesCultural models and typologies in an international perspectiveCultural models and typologies from an interdisciplinary scientific perspective Abstract for the Book Keywords Across the Book (not Chapter Specific) Acknowledgments Introduction The Historical Origins of Love Categorization The Scientific Puzzle of Love Personal Evolution in Understanding of Love The Main Highlights and Structure of This Book Contents About the Author Chapter 1: Love Concepts, Their Diverse Contents, and Definitions 1.1 Multifaceted Concepts of Love 1.1.1 Variety of the Meanings of Love Love as an Elusive Concept Love in Its Diversity of Kinds, Constructs, Meanings, and Types Different Planes of Love The Varieties of Love Love in Its Salient Meanings Psychological Complexity of Love Phenomena Love Emotions and Love Dispositions Love as a Relationship Diverse Scholarship on Emotions and Love 1.1.2 Love as Emotion and Emotional Process Love as Emotional Process Appraisals and Relationship Emotions Love as a Basic Emotion Love as a Complex Emotion The Dimensions Describing Love Emotion Emotions Embodied in Sensations Methodological Issues in the Study of Love as Emotion Emotional Complexity of Love 1.1.3 Dispositional Conception of Love Emotions and Dispositions Love Dispositions Moods, Attitudes, and Traits as Disposition of Love 1.1.4 Love as Moods and Habits The Love Mood The Dynamics of Love Mood Psychophysiology of Love Mood Romantic Mood Induction 1.1.5 Love as Attitudes Love Attitudes as Personal Dispositions Love Attitudes and Love Experience Person-Focused and Relationship-Focused Love Attitudes Self-Report and Indirect Assessments of Love as Attitudes 1.1.6 Love as Traits From Emotions to Emotional Traits Positive and Negative Affectivity Loving Traits 1.1.7 Love as Actions and Interactions Behavioral Aspects of Love Equivocal Actions of Love Actions of Love as Habits Love in Motivational Tendencies The Approach and Avoidance Motivation in Love Love in Action Tendencies Love in Actions and Interactions Structure of Love Interactions Actions of Compassion and Caring The Dimensions of Agency and Communion in Relationships Expressions of Love 1.1.8 Love as a Relationship The Concept of Love as Relationship Diversity of Love Relationships Love Relationships and Romantic Relationships Characteristics of Love as Relationship Dyadic Love Relationship Interdependence in Love Relationships 1.1.9 Love in the Temporal Evolving Perspectives Dynamic Concept of Love Experience and Relationship Love as Evolving Emotional Process Love as Episodic Process A State of Uncertainty in the Beginning of Love Relational Uncertainty in the Beginning of Love Tolerance of Ambiguity in Love Love as the Short-Term and Long-Term Dynamic Emotional Experience The Stages of Ongoing Development in Love Episodic Nature of Emotional Experience and Love 1.1.10 Love as a Cultural Idea The Idea of Love and Reality of Love The Idea of Love Reflected in Languages Across Cultures Religious Conceptions of Love 1.2 The Contents and Definitions of Love Concepts 1.2.1 Conceptual Definitions of Love Importance of Conceptual Definition of Love A Possibility of a Common Conceptual System of Love An Array of Things We Can Conceptualize as Love Logical Definitions of Love Descriptive Definition of Love Prototypical Definitions Cultural Universality and Variety of Definitions 1.2.2 The Multifaceted and Multilevel Conceptual Structure of Love Tapping Complexity of Love Multilevel Structure of Love Love on the Individual Level Personal and Cultural Models of Love Love on the Relationship Level References Chapter 2: Models and Typologies of Love 2.1 Construction of Models and Typologies in Social Sciences 2.1.1 The Concepts of Models and Types of Love Scientific Models of Love Hierarchical Models of Love The Concept of Type Construction of Typologies Varieties of Models and Types of Love The Bottom-Up Approach to the Typologies of Love The Top-Down Approach to the Typologies of Love 2.1.2 Categorization for Construction of Models and Typologies What Is Categorization? The Role of Categorization in Construction of Models and Typologies The Basics of Typologies Methods of Categorization Methodologies for the Construction of Models and Types of Love What Indicators of Love Can Be Categorized? What Cases of Love Can Be Categorized? 2.2 Personal Models of Love 2.2.1 What the Personal Models of Love Represent What the Personal Models of Love Are Personal Models of Love as Implicit Theories Personal Models of Love as Schemas Personal Ideals of Love 2.2.2 The Factors Forming Personal Models of Love Evolutionary, Social, and Personal Functions of Love Biological Evolutionary Roots Are in the Personal Models of Love Neurobiological Roots Are in the Personal Models of Love Personality Traits Are in the Personal Models of Love The Role of Imprinting in Personal Models of Love Effect of Daily Experiences on the Personal Models of Love Love Is a Rewarding Motivation The Role of Motivations in Personal Models The Role of Cultural Experience in Personal Models Love as Aspiration Existential Function of Love 2.3 The Examples of Typological Models of Love 2.3.1 Lee’s Typology of Six Love Styles The Theoretical Descriptions of Love Styles The Structure of Love Styles The Method to Assess Love Styles The Empirically Identified Typology of Love Styles Cultural Ideologies and Love Styles Within-Cultural Variation of Love Styles Advantages, Drawbacks, and Pitfalls of Lee’s Study of Love Styles 2.3.2 C. Hendrick and S. Hendrick’s Typology of Love Attitudes Transformation of Love Styles into Love Attitudes The Theory and Method of Love Attitudes The Fate of Secondary and Tertiary Love Styles Popularity of the Love Attitudes in Research 2.3.3 Sternberg’s Categorization of Love Stories Personal Models of Love Stories The Value of Narrative Approach in Love Categorization 2.3.4 Quadrangular Categorization of Love Basic Components in Quadrangular Love Theory Operational Definition of the Love Constructs Hierarchical Structure of Love Constructs in QLT and QLS Typologies of Love Experience 2.3.5 The Typology of Love as Attachment Typology of Behavioral Patterns of Attachment The Typology of Styles as Categorical Types of Adult Attachment The Typology of Adult Attachment as Dimensional Types 2.4 Cultural Models, Typologies of Love, and Cultural Factors Affecting Them 2.4.1 The Conception of Cultural Models Cultural Models in Human Sciences Structures of Cultural Models Internal and External Planes of Cultural Models Typologies of Cultural Models Methodology of Cultural Models 2.4.2 Cultural Models of Love Conceptualization of the Cultural Models of Love Relations Between Different Cultural Models of Love How Cultural Models of Love Affect Personal Models of Love 2.5 Cultural Factors Shaping Cultural Models of Love 2.5.1 Ecological, Societal, and Cultural Factors Affecting Love Interplay of Biological, Ecological, Societal, and Cultural Factors Affecting Love Competitive, Collectivistic, and Individualistic Societies The Main Cultural Types in the Historical Evolution of Societies The Cultures of Subsistence-Based Societies The Cultures of Traditional Collectivistic Societies The Cultures of Modern Individualistic Societies The Role of Family Structures in the Value of Love Modernization of Societies 2.5.2 Individualistic Versus Collectivistic Values and Models of Love The Concepts of Individualism, Collectivism, and Self How Individualistic and Collectivistic Values Can Affect Love Love Attitudes in Individualistic Cultures Love Attitudes in Collectivistic Cultures 2.5.3 Conservative Versus Liberal Values and Love Conservative Nature of Romanticism in American Culture Effect of Conservatism on Romantic Beliefs in Australia 2.5.4 Gender Equality Versus Inequality in Society and Love The Cultural Traditions of Gender Equality The Modern Rise of Gender Equality and Its Effect on Love Gender Equality and Romantic Love 2.5.5 Social Affordances and Freedom of Love Arranged Marriages and Love The Systems of Kin Relations and Extended Family Structures Parental Influence in Love: The Romeo and Juliet Effect Social Networks and Freedom of Love The Romeo and Juliet Effect in a Cross-Cultural Perspective Effect of Social Network on Individual Love Experience Freedom of Mating Choice and Love References Chapter 3: Socio-biological Models of Love 3.1 Basics of Evolution 3.1.1 General Theory of Evolution General Evolutionary Framework Levels of Evolution Evolutionary Processes of Adaptation 3.1.2 Varieties of Evolution Biological Evolution of Love Social Factors in Evolution of Love Societal and Cultural Evolution of Love Cultural Evolution of Monogamous Love 3.1.3 Evolution in Traditional and Modern Societies Interaction of Biological, Ecological, Social, and Cultural Evolution Transitional Evolution from Traditional to Modernized Societies Controversies of Modern Evolution 3.2 The Biology of Love Attraction 3.2.1 Evolution of Neurophysiological Mechanisms of Love Do Sexually Dimorphic Animals Love Each Other? Neurophysiological Evolution of Love Neurophysiology of Love Types 3.2.2 Genetics of Loving Partners Genetic Similarity Between Loving Partners Genetic Diversity Between Loving Partners 3.3 Evolutionary View of Love as Sexual Reproduction 3.3.1 Love as a Pursuit for Genetic Survival 3.3.2 Love for Mating and Sexual Reproduction 3.3.3 Sexual Attraction in Evolutionary Perspective 3.3.4 Love Helps Look for a Potential Mate 3.3.5 The Values of Good Look and Resourcefulness in Love 3.3.6 Cultural Variability of the Values of Good Look and Resourcefulness in Love 3.3.7 Methodological Challenge of Averaging Mate Preference 3.3.8 Mate Preferences and Real Mating 3.3.9 A Causality Issue in Relations Between Good Look and Love 3.4 Evolutionary View of Love as the Social Bonding 3.4.1 Evolutionary Value of Community Bonding Model of Love Community Bonding for Survival Social Bonding in Dogs Social Bonding in Primates Social Bonding in Human Evolution Varieties of Human Mating Relationship Systems Passionate Love as the Adaptation Mechanism in Social Bonding 3.4.2 Ecological and Social Conditions of Evolutionary Adaptive Bonding Social Conditions of Living and Bonds of Love Structures of Family Relationships and Love The Community Bonding Helps Raise a Child 3.4.3 Evolutionary Value of the Pair-Bonding Model of Love Attachment as the Evolutionary Mechanism of Bonding Evolutionary Early Forms of Human Mating Relationships Compassion and Caring in Service of Bonding References Chapter 4: Sexual Models of Love 4.1 The Model of Sexual Love 4.1.1 Sex as Sexual Pleasure Concepts of Sex and Sexual Love Sexual Love Cross-Cultural Conceptions of Sexual Love Social Origins of Sexual Love 4.1.2 Cultural Models of Premarital Sex in Love Traditional Cultural Models of Premarital Sexual Relations and Chastity Mormons Models of Premarital Sex in America The Western Sexual Revolution of Love in the 1960s–1970s 4.1.3 Gender Equality and Premarital Sex Gender Equality and Sex Sexual Freedom and Sexualization of Love 4.1.4 Relations of Love and Sex in Modern Cultural Models of Relationships Premarital Sex and Love Among Modern Americans The Modern Japanese Cultural Models of Sex and Love The Role of Sex in Other Types and Models of Love 4.2 The Models of Sensual and Erotic Love 4.2.1 The Features of Sensual Love Hedonic Pleasure of Bodily Sensations Kissing in the Model of Sensual Love Sexual and Romantic Kiss as a Cultural Phenomenon 4.2.2 Erotic Model of Love The Concept of Erotic Love Erotic Love Is the Love of Beauty Erotic Love and Physical Attraction Relations of Erotic Love with Other Models of Love 4.2.3 Erotic Love in Cross-Cultural Perspective Erotic Art and Erotic Love Cultural Models of Beauty Cultural Models of Erotic Love Across Cultural History A Cultural Variety of Erotic Beauty and Attractiveness Erotic Adornment and Attire 4.2.4 What Is Erotically Attractive What Is Beautiful Is Erotically Attractive Evolutionary Origins of Erotic Attractiveness What Is Culturally Erotic Is Beautiful Erotic Attraction of Expressive Behavior Cultural Modernization and Westernization of Erotic Ideals The Modern Shifts in Erotic Model of Love Men’s and Women’s Erotic Love References Chapter 5: Models of Passionate and Affectionate Love 5.1 The Model of Passionate Love 5.1.1 The Attributes of Passionate Love Model On the Concept of Passion The Passion of Love The Model of Passionate Love Functions of Passionate Love 5.2 Ubiquitous Passionate Love Across Cultures 5.2.1 The Model of Passionate Love as a Cultural Idea Cultural Origins of the Passionate Model of Love Emergence of the Cultural Model of Passionate Love Cross-cultural Ubiquity of Passionate Love 5.2.2 Cultural Values and Experiences of Passionate Love Cultural Values of Passionate Love Passionate Versus Dispassionate Emotions of Love The Values and Experience of Passionate Love in Individualistic and Collectivistic Cultures The Individual Culturally Specific Preferences in the Experience of Love 5.2.3 Experience and Expression of Passionate Love Across Cultures Cross-cultural Variation in the Experience and Expression of Passionate Love Cross-cultural Dimensionality of Passionate Love Eros Love Attitudes Across Cultures Commonality and Variation in the Cultural Models of Passionate Love 5.3 Affectionate Models of Love 5.3.1 On the Concept of Affection 5.3.2 Affectionate Versus Passionate Models of Love 5.3.3 Chinese and Japanese Traditions of Muted Expression of Affectionate Love References Chapter 6: Models of Romantic Love 6.1 The Conception of Romantic Love Model 6.1.1 Cultural and Psychological Complexity of Romantic Love What Is Romantic in the Romantic Love Model The Major Distinctions of Romantic Love Model Subjective Notion of the Romantic Love and Romantic Relationships? Multifaceted Conception of Romantic Love 6.1.2 Romantic Love Model Across Times and Cultures The Early Cultural Evolution of Romantic Love Model Evolvement of Truly Romantic Love The History of Relations Between Cultural Ideals of Romantic Love and Reality How Romantic Love Model Conquered Premarital Relationships in Modernized Societies The Cultural Model of Romantic Love Across Cultures Experience of Romantic Love Across Cultures 6.2 Sex in Romantic Love Model 6.2.1 Romantic Love and Sexual Feelings The Role of Sex in Romantic Love How Sex Evolves into Romantic Love Relative Independence of Romantic Love from Sex 6.2.2 Sex and Romantic Love Across Times and Cultures Christiaan and Buddhist Cultures About Relations Between Sex and Love Influence of Social Conditions on Sex and Romantic Love Cultural Effect of Sexual Inequality and Equality on Romantic Love 6.3 Idealization in Romantic Love Model 6.3.1 Passionate and Affectionate Romantic Love Models Passionate Romantic Love Model Romantic Myth of Passion Passionate Love Is Not Necessarily Romantic Love Affectionate Romantic Love Model 6.3.2 How Idealization Works in Relationships The Concept of Idealization Passion of Love Triggers Idealization Are Romantic Love Attitudes and Emotions the Symptoms of Immaturity? 6.3.3 Constructive and Destructive Roles of Romantic Idealization Perceptual Romantic Illusions in Love The Unique Person to Love and Exceptional Relationship The Benefits of Romantic Love Ideals The Adverse Effects of Idealization in Romantic Love Model Critics of Romantic Love Model The Romantic Love Complex as a Cultural Ideal Effects of Cultural Values on the Romantic Idealistic Beliefs 6.4 The Romantic Beliefs that Make Love Romantic 6.4.1 What the Romantic Beliefs Are? The Origins of Romantic Beliefs Romantic Views of Life and Love The Modern Scholarly View of Romantic Love Model 6.4.2 Romantic Beliefs Across Cultures Cross-Cultural Studies of Romantic Beliefs Cross-Cultural Variations of Romantic Beliefs The Role of Culture, Gender, and Age in Romantic Beliefs 6.4.3 Romantic Love Is Irrational Unknown Causes and Nature of Love The Mystics of Love Chemistry of Love 6.4.4 Romantic Love as a Destiny Cultural Models of Love as a Fate or Choice Cross-Cultural Presence of the Love Destiny Concept Love as a Destiny in Burmese Culture Love as a Destiny in Chinese Culture 6.4.5 Romantic Beliefs and the Real Life The Issue of Universality of Romantic Love Model Propaganda of Romantic Love Model Compatibility of the Romantic Model of Love with Other Models of Love in American Society 6.4.6 Romantic and Other Models of Love in Modern World Romantic Model Versus Other Models of Love Romantic Love Versus Pragmatic Love Romantic Love and Companionship 6.5 Admiration Models of Romantic Love 6.5.1 The Human’s Need for Admiration and Adoration The Need to Admire The Need to Be Admired The Concepts of Admiration and Adoration 6.5.2 Admiration of Celebrities and Parasocial Romantic Model of Love Cultural Valorization of Celebrities Cultural Model of Idolizing Celebrities The Parasocial Model of Love, which Substitutes External Social Relationships Parasocial Versus Contact Romantic Model of Love Personalities Predisposed to the Parasocial Model of Love Fanatic Model of Love 6.5.3 Narcissistic Romantic Model of Self-Love The Concept of Self-Love Love of Narcissistic Person Evolution of Narcissistic Love in the United States Modern American Narcissistic Culture Ethnic, Gender, and Age Variation of Narcissism in the United States Narcissistic Love Across Cultures References Chapter 7: Models of Love as Social Connections 7.1 The Community-bonding and Pair-bonding as the Cultural Models of Love 7.1.1 Community and Kinship Love The Individual Interdependence in Community and Kinship The Kinship Love in Traditional Societies Familial Model of Love 7.1.2 Models of Love as Pair-bonding Emergence of Pair-bonding Love Diversity of Pair-bonding Relationships Sexual Monogamy Cultural Monogamy 7.2 Models of Love as Attachment 7.2.1 Need to Belong and Attachment Love The Need to Belong Is a Basic Human Need Need to Belong and Love In-group Bonding and Pair-bonding as the Types of Attachment 7.2.2 Attachment Models of Love The Love of Child as Attachment The Love of Adult as Attachment Adult Attachment Model of Love Across Cultures Love as Attachment in Relations with Other Models of Love 7.3 Models of Love as Commitment 7.3.1 The Dutiful Model of Love The Concept of Love as a Duty Varieties of Love as a Duty Emphasis on Love as a Duty in Traditional Collectivistic Societies Appreciation in the Duty Model of Love 7.3.2 Externally and Internally Imposed Commitment of Love Typology of Commitment Love as Externally Imposed Commitment Love as Internally Imposed Commitment The Role of Individualistic and Collectivistic Values in Experience of Love as Commitment 7.4 Models of Companionate Love 7.4.1 Companionate Love in Marital and Family Relationships Concept of Companionate Love Love for Marriage The Cultural Model of Marital and Family Love 7.4.2 Western Cultural Models of Companionate Love Western Scholarly Model of Companionate Love How the American Model of Companionate Love Evolved The Modern American Model of Companionate Love Family Union, Comfort, and Friendship Are the Core Features of American Companionate Love 7.4.3 Eastern Cultural Models of Companionate Love Cultural Universality of Companionate Love Model Chinese Companionate Love The Chinese Concept of Enqing—Grateful Love and Affection 7.5 Models of Love as Union 7.5.1 Compatibility of Partners in Companionate Model of Love Love as a Union Compatibility and Coordination Between Partners Interdependence and Synchrony of Partners in Companionate Love Love as Interpersonal Complementarity and Self-expansion Model of Love as Self-expansion Self-transcendence in Love as Self-expansion The Model of Love as the Relationship Building 7.5.2 Typologies of Relationship Dependency in Love Interdependence in Love and Close Relationship Individual Types of Relationship Dependency The Cultural Value of Interdependence and Independence The Cultures of Interdependency and Independency in Love Relationships Cultural Attitudes Toward Dependency in Love Love as Relational Adjustment and Accommodation Cultural Variations in the Attitudes to be Assertive or Accommodating to the Partner Self-change in Love 7.5.3 Cultural Typologies of Psychological Intimacy in Love Intimacy as Closeness and Its Cultural Value Cultural Diversity of Intimacy Intimacy as Self-disclosure and Its Cultural Variation Japanese and American Cultural Models of Expressing Intimacy Sharing and Communication in the Hispanic Cultural Model of Love Intimacy in Latin American Cultures Effect of Individualism and Collectivism on the Cultural Value of Intimacy 7.6 Friendship Models of Love 7.6.1 Lovers as Friends The Terminology Standing for the Friendship-Based Love Friendship-Based Love Pseudo Opposition of Love and Friendship 7.6.2 Friendship Model of Love in Cultural Contexts American Model of Love as Friendship Friendship-based Love Across Cultural Groups in North America and Nearby Friendship-based Love Across Countries 7.7 Altruistic and Benevolent Models of Love 7.7.1 Altruism and Benevolence in Love The Construct of Altruism Disciplinary Explorations and Cross-cultural Research of Altruism The Benefits of Altruism and Prosocial Behavior Cross-cultural Universality of Benevolent Love 7.7.2 Love as Caring and Giving Love as Caring Benefits of Caring Love as Giving Communal Relationship in Love Giving Everything and Anything 7.7.3 Love as Agape The Concept of Agape Altruistic Love in Christian Culture Altruistic Love in the Confucian Culture Cultural Religious Models of Altruistic Love The Agape Love in Non-religious Contexts The Western Agape Attitudes in Relationships The Chinese Agape Attitudes in Relationships References Chapter 8: Models of Rational Love 8.1 Realistic and Pragmatic Models of Love 8.1.1 Real Love Versus Ideal Romantic Love Positive Biases and Unrealistic Expectations of Romantic Love The Value of Realistic Perception and Choice in Love 8.1.2 Love in Practical Ways Love Through Doing The Puritan Model of Love in the Early American History Anti-Romantic Puritan Model of Love Mexican Practical Love Practical Love in China and Africa 8.2 Exchange Models of Love 8.2.1 The Love Models of Economic and Social Exchange What are the Exchange Models of Love? Mating and Dating as Exchange Economic Exchange Model of Love Upward Mobility Model of Love Status Exchange Model of Love in Intercultural Relationships 8.2.2 Investment Models of Love The Structure of Psychological Investment in Love Investment Constructs Personal Investment and Commitment Cross-Cultural Validity of Investment Model of Love Types of Personal Investment Models Model of Love as Parental Emotional Investment Model of Love as the Adult Emotional Investment in Relationship Emotional Investment as a Personality Trait 8.2.3 Communal and Equitable Models of Love Communal Relationship Versus Exchange Relationship The Mix of Communal and Exchange Models of Love in Close Relationships The Equity Theory of Love How Equitable Relationships Work Cultural Variability in Perception of Equity 8.3 Performing Models of Love 8.3.1 Psychologically Disengaged Love Performing Play and Game of Love Gaming and Playful Aspects of Love Relationships 8.3.2 Love as the Role Play Why Love Is a Play The Imitation Game of Love Flirting Is Also a Game of Mating Playful Model of Love Cross-Cultural Universality of Playful Forms of Love Playboys and Playgirls 8.3.3 Love as a Game Why Love Is Game Mating Games Playing Sexual Games Explicit Sexual Games Relationship Games 8.3.4 The Model of Ludus Love The Ludus Type Is a Manipulator The Ludus Type Is a Conqueror Ludul Model of Love Across Cultures References Conclusions Toward a Comprehensive Science of Love The Lexicon of Love Research Conceptual and Operational Definitions of Love Multiplicity of the Things We Call Love Appeal for the Multifaceted, Descriptive, and Complex Models of Love Typologies of Love Things and Typologies of Cultures Basic Approaches to the Construction of Cultural Models and Typologies of Love The Diversity in Cultural Typology of Love References Index