Fretting Wear and Fretting Fatigue: Fundamental Principles and Applications

Description

Fretting Wear and Fretting Fatigue: Fundamental Principles and Applications takes a combined mechanics and materials approach, providing readers with a fundamental understanding of fretting phenomena, related modeling and experimentation techniques, methods for mitigation, and robust examples of practical applications across an array of engineering disciplines. Sections cover the underpinning theories of fretting wear and fretting fatigue, delve into experimentation and modeling methods, and cover a broad array of applications of fretting fatigue and fretting wear, looking at its impacts in medical implants, suspension ropes, bearings, heating exchangers, electrical connectors, and more. Cover Fretting Wear and Fretting Fatigue Copyright Contributors Preface Brief history of the subject Early stages Initial milestones in the understanding of the mechanics of fretting Crucial steps toward a better understanding of fretting wear and fretting fatigue State of the art at the beginning of the new millennium Acknowledgments References Introduction to fretting fundamentals Fretting within a wider context of tribology Fretting wear Fretting fatigue Mitigating fretting damage References Contact geometry Friction and fretting regimes References Transition criteria Mapping approaches References Early developments Basic test configurations Fretting wear tests and analytical methods Fretting fatigue tests and analytical methods Combined fretting wear and fatigue approaches References Theoretical models Wear mechanisms and phenomenological models of fretting wear Fatigue crack initiation and propagation Numerical models Wear models using mechanistic approaches and advanced FEM and BEM simulations Advanced numerical methods for crack initiation and propagation in fretting Nano- and mesoscale models References The role of tribologically transformed structures and debris in fretting of metals Overview Wear in both sliding and fretting-Contrasts in the transport of species into and out of the contacts The nature of oxide debris formed in fretting Formation of oxide debris in fretting-The role of oxygen supply and demand Oxygen supply-Contact size Oxygen supply-Environmental oxygen concentration Oxygen supply-Fretting in liquids Oxygen demand-Fretting frequency Tribo-sintering of oxide debris and glaze formation Microstructural damage-Tribologically transformed structures in fretting The critical role of debris in fretting: Godets third body approach Godets third body approach revisited: Rate-determining processes in fretting wear Wear in the steady state The first potential RDP: Debris formation The second potential RDP: Debris transport out of the contact The third potential RDP: Oxygen transport into the contact Implications of the RDP concept Conclusion References Friction energy wear approach Friction energy wear approach Basics regarding friction energy wear approach Fretting loop analysis and related friction energy parameters Archard vs friction energy wear concept: The influence of the coefficient of friction Friction energy wear concept Third body theory (TBT) Contact oxygenation concept (COC) Influence of contact loadings regarding friction energy wear rate Influence of the normal load Influence of the sliding frequency Influence of the contact size Influence of the sliding amplitude Extended wear coefficient approach: A power law formulation Influence of ambient conditions Influence of temperature Influence of lubricated (grease) interface Surface wear modeling using the friction energy density approach Modeling the fretting worn profiles taking into account the dynamical evolution of debris layer Multiphysics fretting wear modeling including friction energy density, third body, and contact oxygenation process Predicting the coating durability using the friction energy density parameter Conclusions References Lubrication approaches Introduction Parameter definition Amplitude ratio Damage ratio Oil lubrication Influence of viscosity Influence of oscillation frequency Mechanism for fretting wear reduction in oil lubrication Grease lubrication Influence of base oil viscosity Influence of worked penetration Influence of oscillation frequency Mechanism for fretting wear reduction in grease lubrication Conclusions Acknowledgments References Impact of roughness Introduction Contact of rough surfaces Stress distribution in rough contact Effective contact area Coefficient of friction Bearing capacity Surface anisotropy and orientation Transition between partial and gross slip Impact of surface roughness on fretting wear Friction in lubricated contact conditions Energy dissipated at the interfaces for smooth and rough surfaces Impact of surface roughness on crack initiation Dynamics of surface roughness evolution in fretting contact Measurement of fretting wear using surface metrology References Materials aspects in fretting Physical processes impacting materials in industrial fretting contacts Factors affecting fretting behavior of different materials groups Materials behavior vs fretting regimes Materials behavior vs fretting contact load and geometry Materials behavior vs fretting frequency Materials behavior vs fretting temperature and environment Materials hardness, stiffness, yield strength vs fretting behavior Materials engineering approaches to the mitigation of fretting wear Thermo-chemical surface treatments Shot-peening treatment Laser surface treatment Application of coatings to mitigate fretting wear Thermally sprayed coatings Hard coatings Adhesion of hard coatings Soft metal coatings Advanced coating designs and architectures Multicomponent and composite coatings Multilayered and superlattice coatings Adaptive composite coatings Duplex coatings Concluding remarks References Contact size in fretting Introduction Experimental techniques for nano-/microscale fretting and reciprocating wear testing Contact geometry effects Pile-up Contact size effects on deformation vs fracture Indentation size effects Lateral size effects Size effects on yield and fracture in coatings Contact size and friction Case studies MEMS-Silicon and thin hard carbon coatings on silicon Coatings to protect silicon-Thin hard carbon films Biomedical materials DLC/steel Conclusions References Partial slip problems in contact mechanics Introduction Global and pointwise friction Global and local elasticity solutions Half-plane contacts: Fundamentals Conditions for full stick Effects of tension and moments Summary of full stick conditions Sharp-edged (complete) contact: Fundamentals Conditions for full stick Partial slip of incomplete contacts An introduction to corrective slip: The Cattaneo-Mindlin solution Effect of bulk tension, cyclic loading, and change in normal load Dislocation-based solutions Introductory problem Steady-state solution: Constant normal load Steady-state solution: Varying normal load Application to Hertzian contact Asymptotic approaches Summary Eigenfunctions for the Williams wedge solution Size of the permanent stick zone for a Hertz geometry with large remote tensions References Fundamental aspects and material characterization Introduction Mechanical models and metrics The crack analogue approach Modification of the crack analogue Material testing and characterization Looking ahead References Fretting fatigue design diagram Equations for estimating fretting fatigue strength based on strength of materials approach Fracture mechanics approach for fretting fatigue life prediction Fretting fatigue crack path prediction Fretting fatigue life prediction Fretting-contact-induced crack closure Fretting fatigue design diagram based on stresses on the contact surface Summary References Further reading Life estimation methods Fretting fatigue features and fretting processes Fretting fatigue features Fretting fatigue processes Fretting fatigue crack initiation limit Crack initiation criteria using stress singularity parameter Crack initiation criteria using critical distance stress theory High-cycle fretting fatigue life estimations considering fretting wear Process of fretting fatigue life analysis Fretting wear analysis Fracture mechanics analysis Fretting fatigue life analysis Low-cycle fretting fatigue life estimations without considering fretting wear Application of failure analysis of several accidents and design analyses Failure of bolted joint hubs in gear transmissions Explanation of the accident situation Failure analysis of accident Failure of axle bolts in roller coasters Explanation of the accident situation Investigation of the cause of the accident Fatigue life analysis of connecting rod bolts Fretting fatigue strength improvements using stress release grooves Conclusions References Further reading Effect of surface roughness and residual stresses Introduction Effect of surface roughness on fretting fatigue Numerical studies of the surface roughness effect on fretting fatigue Experimental analyses of the surface roughness effect Some general considerations Residual stresses in fretting Usual surface treatments Stability of residual stresses Modeling the effect of surface roughness on fretting fatigue Analytical approaches Numerical approaches Residual stress modeling in fretting fatigue References Advanced numerical modeling techniques for crack nucleation and propagation Introduction Theoretical background Crack nucleation Mechanics of crack nucleation Crack nucleation criteria Critical plane approach Findley parameter Stress invariant approach Crossland parameter Fretting specific parameter Ruiz parameter Continuum damage mechanics approach Lemaitre damage model Crack propagation Mechanisms of crack propagation Methodologies to estimate propagation lives Linear elastic fracture mechanics Cyclic cohesive zone models (as an alternative for when LEFM assumptions are not satisfied) Numerical modeling Crack initiation models FE models Implementation of damage models CP approach methodology Crack propagation models LEFM implementation Implementation of cyclic cohesive zone models Crack nucleation prediction Crack nucleation location Initial crack orientation Nucleation life estimation Effect of out-of-phase loading Effect of stress gradient and stress averaging on life Crack propagation lives estimation LEFM and empirical laws (such as Paris Law) Cyclic cohesive zone models (unifying initiation and propagation phases) Summary and conclusions Way forward References A thermodynamic framework for treatment of fretting fatigue Introduction Fretting fatigue models-background Surface damage from irreversible thermodynamics framework perspective Thermodynamically based CDM CDM analysis of fretting fatigue crack nucleation with provision for size effect Methodology and approach Fretting contact stress formulation and analysis Crack initiation parameter for CDM analysis Averaging zone identification Crack nucleation life by CDM Fretting subsurface stresses with provision for surface roughness Formulation of rough contact problem Surface tractions and subsurface stress distribution CDM-based prediction of fretting fatigue crack nucleation life considering surface roughness Numerical procedure Critical tangential force prediction Crack nucleation life prediction Conclusion and remarks References Aero engines Introduction Examples of engine events Southwest Airlines flight 1380, April 17, 2018 RB211 Trent 892 turbofan engine Boeing 777, A6-EMM, January 31, 2001 Accident to the AIRBUS A380-861 with Engine Alliance GP7270 engines, September 30, 2017 Areas subject to fretting Dovetail blade roots Derivation of stresses Design basis for a bladed disc Fir-tree blade roots Splines-Contact fatigue, notch fatigue, and wear Flanges Mitigation measures Surface coatings Surface treatment (residual stress) Design criteria-Academic perspective Short crack arrest Contact asymptotics Industrial applications perspective Design and assessment approaches Edge of contact stress prediction/fracture mechanics approaches Bulk or net section stresses Subcomponent test Specimen test Conclusions References Electrical connectors Introduction Effects of fretting on electrical contact resistance Effects of materials on fretting in electrical contacts Effects of contact load, frequency of motion, and slip amplitude on fretting in electrical contacts Endurance of electrical contact resistance under fretting Discussions Fretting in industrial applications Structure of connector Connector and contact force Connector materials Fretting test with real-world products Connectors with fretting occurrence Case analysis of fretting damage Alternative solutions for fretting in electrical contacts Summary Acknowledgments References Biomedical devices Introduction Common biomaterials Metallic biomaterials Cobalt-based alloys Titanium and titanium-based alloys Iron-based alloys Ceramic biomaterials Alumina and alumina composites Silicon nitride Zirconium and zirconium composites The biological environment Compound tribocorrosion degradation mechanisms of materials in the biological environment Corrosion Electrochemistry of corrosion Passivity of metallic biomaterials Mechanisms of fretting corrosion In vitro assessment of fretting corrosion within the biological environment The role of contact condition The role of the material contact couple The role of environment In vivo fretting corrosion within the biological environment Clinical implications of fretting corrosion Orthopedics/trauma Modular taper interfaces Spinal instrumentation Dental Cardiovascular Conclusions References Nuclear power systems Introduction Critical safety components of the nuclear reactor that are susceptible to fretting wear damage Methodology for predicting fretting damage of nuclear structural components Wear energy in impact-sliding fretting Nonlinear response of the fretting tribo-system under random excitation Fretting wear of nuclear steam generator tubes-Effects of process parameters Effect of the tube-support radial clearance Effect of temperature Effect of water chemistry Effect of materials and contact configuration/support geometry Fretting Wear of nuclear fuel assembly-Effect of process parameters Effect of the process parameters controlling the Wear energy Effect of temperature Effect of excitation mode Effect of surface treatment Concluding remarks and future outlook Acknowledgments References Rolling bearings Introduction False brinelling vs true brinelling Bearing applications at risk of false brinelling Mechanisms of false brinelling in rolling bearings Test methods for assessing lubricant protection against fretting wear in bearings Progression of false brinelling damage Influence of lubricant properties and contact conditions on false brinelling Effect of lubricant properties Effect of oscillating amplitude Possible measures to mitigate false brinelling risk in rolling bearings Fretting in nonworking surfaces of bearings References Overhead conductors Introduction Traditional approaches Poffenberger-Swart formula Endurance limit approach Cumulative damage method Recent results based on fatigue testing of conductors Resonant fatigue test bench Effect of the tensile load Effect of the H/w parameter Effect of elastomeric clamps Effect of temperature Recent progress toward a multiscale fatigue analysis Motivation Experiments Methodology for fatigue life prediction Evaluation of the methodology References Marine risers Introduction Design methodology for fretting in flexible marine riser Experimental characterization of pressure armor material Global riser loading conditions and analysis Global riser analysis Global-local loading conditions Global riser axial tension Global riser curvature Local nub-groove fretting analysis Fretting wear-fatigue predictions Concluding remarks Acknowledgments References Index