Education in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Comparative Analysis

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Contents Acknowledgments Acronyms and Abbreviations Overview Is Everyone Getting a Chance at Education? Are Those Given a Chance Actually Learning? Is What They Are Learning Relevant for Work and Life? Are Countries Investing Enough in Education and Achieving a Sound Balance across Levels of Education? Are the Resources Well Deployed and Managed to Ensure Efficient Functioning of Education Systems? How Is Cross-Country Diversity in Policies and Educational Outcomes Useful for Country-Specific Policy Development? Notes References Country Status Reports Chapter 1 Coverage of Education and Prospects for Expansion Overview of the Pattern of Coverage Relationship between Education Coverage and Per Capita GDP Prospects for the Expansion of Education Coverage Issues for Policy Development Notes References Chapter 2 Socioeconomic Disparities in Education Gender Disparities: Analysis of Administrative Data Socioeconomic Disparities beyond Gender: Analysis of Household Surveys Issues for Policy Development Notes References Chapter 3 Out-of-School Children Estimating the Number of Out-of-School Children Profile of Out-of-School Children Reaching Out-of-School Children Issues for Policy Development Notes References Chapter 4 Patterns of Spending on Education Aggregate Spending Patterns in the Distribution of Spending Relationship between Resources and Coverage Prioritizing Spending among School Inputs Management of Resources Issues for Policy Development Notes References Chapter 5 Learning Outcomes Status of Learning Outcomes in Sub-Saharan Africa How Can Students' Learning Outcomes Be Improved? Issues for Policy Development Notes References Chapter 6 Social Outcomes Relationship between Education and Social Outcomes in Sub-Saharan African Countries Relationship between Education and Social Outcomes by Level of Education Cross-Country Variations in the Relationship between Education and Social Outcomes Effectiveness of Education Systems at Generating Social Outcomes Issues for Policy Development Notes References Chapter 7 Education and Employment Cross-Country Analysis of the Pattern of Employment Labor Productivity by Economic Sector Quantitative Match between Demand and Supply in the Labor Market Relationship between Higher Education Enrollment and Unemployment Issues for Policy Development Notes References Appendix A Definitions and Background Information References Appendix B Enrollment Data References Appendix C Social Disparities References Appendix D Out-of-School Children References Appendix E Education Expenditure References Appendix F Gross Enrollment Rate (GER) and Its Underlying Components Appendix G Student Learning Appendix H Social Outcomes On Including Wealth in Regressions Reference Appendix I Education and Employment Reference Appendix J Lists of Surveys Appendix K The Millennium Development Goals References Boxes Box 1.1: Benin School Construction through Community-Driven Development: A Decade of Lessons Learned Box 1.2: Mauritania: Community Management of Primary School Construction Box 1.3: Zimbabwe: Increased Access to Secondary Education through Government–Community Partnerships and School-Based Management Box 3.1: The Central African Republic, The Gambia, Lesotho, and Malawi: Enhancing Teacher Deployment to Rural Areas Box 3.2: Malawi: Impact of Conditional Cash Transfers on Girls' Secondary School Attendance Box 3.3: Kenya: Girls' Scholarship Program Box 4.1: Madagascar, Niger, and Senegal: Contract Teacher Recruitment to Expand Primary School Coverage Box 4.2: Madagascar: Improvement in the Allocation of Teachers to Schools Box 5.1: Ghana: Leaping in Quality from "Poor" to "Fair" Box 5.2: Senegal: Better Management of Instructional Time to Improve Student Learning Box 5.3: Madagascar: School Management Impact Evaluation Box 5.4: The Gambia: Reducing Teacher Absenteeism by Strengthening Supervision Box 5.5: Uganda: Public Access to Information Increases Effective Arrival of Grants to Schools Box 5.6: Kenya: Teacher Incentive Pilot Program Tables Table O.1: Social Outcomes by Average Education Level in Sub-Saharan African Countries, ca. 2003 Table O.2: Randomness in Teacher Allocation to Primary Schools, Selected Sub-Saharan African Countries, 2000–08 Table 1.1: Education Coverage in Low-Income Countries, by World Region, ca. 2009 Table 1.2: Secondary Education Coverage in Selected Sub-Saharan African Countries, ca. 2009 Table 1.3: Absolute Gains in Coverage, by Education Level, in 33 Low-Income Sub-Saharan African Countries, 1990–2009 Table 1.4: Scenarios for the Expansion of Lower Secondary Enrollment by 2020 in 33 Low-Income Sub-Saharan African Countries Table 2.1: Gender Disparities at All Levels of Education, Sub-Saharan African Countries, Selected Years Table 2.2: Comparison of Sub-Saharan African Gender Disparities in Education with Those of Low-Income Countries in Other World Regions, 2008 Table 2.3: Distribution of Population Aged 5–24 by Gender, Location, Income, and Level of Schooling in Sub-Saharan African Countries, ca. 2005 Table 2.4: Disparities by Social Group and Level of Education, Sub-Saharan African Countries, ca. 2005 Table 3.1: Primary Entry and Attainment Rates Based on Different Data Sources, 33 Low-Income Sub-Saharan African Countries, ca. 2003 Table 3.2: Estimated Number of Out-of-School Children in 33 Low-Income Sub-Saharan African Countries, ca. 2003 Table 3.3: Correlation of Distance to School and Probability of Grade One Enrollment, Simulated for Aggregate of Eight Sub-Saharan African Countries, ca. 2003 Table 3.4: Education Policies to Increase Access to, and Participation in, Primary Schooling Table 3.5: Impact of Proportion of Female Teachers on Primary-School Repetition and Retention Rates in Sub-Saharan African Countries Table 3.6: Impact on Primary School Retention of Reduced Repetition and Increased Share of Schools with Full Primary Cycle Table 3.7: Education Policies to Increase Retention in Primary Education Table 4.1: Comparison of Public Spending on Education (Capital and Recurrent), ca. 2005 Table 4.2: Average Tax Revenues and ODA Relative to Total Public Spending, Sub-Saharan African Countries, 2005–07 Table 4.3: Household Spending on Education in Selected Sub-Saharan African Countries, ca. 2003 Table 4.4: Comparison of Education Spending Distribution, by Level, 2006 or Latest Available Year Table 4.5: Public Recurrent Spending Per Student by Educational Level in Sub-Saharan African Countries, ca. 2003 Table 4.6: International Comparison of Per-Student Public Spending by Educational Level, ca. 2005 Table 4.7: Concentration of Public Education Spending within a Cohort, by Sub-Saharan African Country Income Level Table 4.8: School Inputs in Primary Education in Sub-Saharan African Countries, ca. 2003 Table 4.9: Decomposition of Variables' Relative Influence to Explain Variability in Primary GER across Sub-Saharan African Countries Table 4.10: Comparison of Randomness in Teacher Allocation to Primary Schools in Selected Sub-Saharan African Countries Table 4.11: Scope for Increasing Education Spending in Selected Low-Income Sub-Saharan African Countries Table 5.1: Test Scores and Index of Student Learning in Primary Education in Selected Sub-Saharan African Countries, 1996–2009 Table 5.2: Variance Decomposition of PASEC Learning Scores in 10 Sub-Saharan African Countries Table 5.3: School Management and Accountability Tools in Selected Sub-Saharan African Countries, 2007 Table 6.1: Logit Regression Results: Relation between Risk of Poverty and Educational Attainment in Benin, 2001 Table 6.2: Social Outcomes by Level of Education, Sub-Saharan African Average Table 6.3: Contribution to Social Outcomes by Year of Education, Sub-Saharan African Average Table 7.1: Employment Status Distribution per 100 Working-Age Population, Aggregate for 23 Sub-Saharan African Countries, ca. 2003 Table 7.2: Simulation of Employment by Sector as a Function of Per Capita GDP, Average Low-Income Sub-Saharan African Country Table 7.3: Apparent Labor Productivity by Sector, Sub-Saharan African Average, 1985–2003 Table 7.4: Employment Status by Age Group and Highest Level of Schooling Attended, Aggregate for 23 Sub-Saharan African Countries, ca. 2003 Table 7.5: Employment and Unemployment by Level of Education and Age Group in23 Sub-Saharan African Countries, ca. 2003 Table 7.6: Determinants of Unemployment Rate in 25–34 Age Cohort of Higher-Education Graduates: Cross-Country Analysis, ca. 2003 Table 7.7: Modeling Higher Education Enrollment and Share of Skilled Formal Sector Jobs Table A.1: Classification of Sub-Saharan African Countries Used in This Report Table A.2: Definitions of Student Flow Indicators Table A.3: Duration of Primary and Secondary Cycles (Standardized) in 47 Sub-Saharan African Countries, 2005 Table B.1: Education Coverage by Level of Education in 47 Sub-Saharan African Countries, ca. 2009 Table B.2: Development in Education Coverage over Time in Sample of 33 Low-Incomea Sub-Saharan African Countries, 1990, 1999, and 2009 Table C.1: Gender Disparities by Level of Education and Sub-Saharan African Country, ca. 1990 and 2008 Table D.1: Number and Proportion of Out-of-School Children in 33 Low-Income Sub-Saharan African Countries, 2003 Table D.2: Characteristics of Out-of-School Children in 30 Low-Income Sub-Saharan African Countries, ca. 2003 Table D.3: Extent of Social Disparities between Children In and Out of School in 30 Sub-Saharan African Countries, ca. 2003 Table E.1: Public Spending (Capital and Recurrent) on Education in Sub-Saharan African Countries, ca. 2005 Table E.2: Public Recurrent Spending per Student per Year in Sub-Saharan African Countries, by Education Level, ca. 2003 Table G.1: PASEC and SACMEQ Scores and Their Transformation to the MLA Scale in Sub-Saharan African Countries, 1996–2009 Table H.1: Education and Risk of Being Poor in Sub-Saharan African Countries, without Wealth as Control Table H.2: Education and Childbearing Behavior in Sub-Saharan African Countries, with and without Wealth as Control Table H.3: Education and Maternal Health in Sub-Saharan African Countries, with and without Wealth as Control Table H.4: Education and Child Health and Development in Sub-Saharan African Countries, with and without Wealth as Control Table H.5: Education, Knowledge about HIV/AIDS, and Use of Information Media in Sub Saharan Africa Countries, with and without Wealth as Control Table H.6: Relation between Education and Probability of Being in the 40 Percent Poorest, by Country Table H.7: Relation between Education and Woman's Age at First Birth, by Country Table H.8: Relation between Education and Months between Last Two Consecutive Births, by Country Table H.9: Relation between Education and Number of Live Births to Date, by Country Table H.10: Relation between Education and Probability of Using any Contraceptive Method Frequently, by Country Table H.11: Relation between Education and Number of Prenatal Consultations during Pregnancy, by Country Table H.12: Relation between Education and Number of Tetanus Vaccinations during Last Pregnancy, by Country Table H.13: Relation between Education and Probability of Receiving Vitamin A during Last Pregnancy, by Country Table H.14: Relation between Education and Probability that Last Delivery Was Assisted by Skilled Attendant, by Country Table H.15: Relation between Education and Probability that Children Sleep under a Bed Net, by Country Table H.16: Relation between Education and Probability that Children Are Fully Vaccinated by Age 2, by Country Table H.17: Relation between Education and Mortality Rate of Children under 5, by Country Table H.18: Relation between Education and Probability that Children Aged 9–11 Have Ever Attended School, by Country Table H.19: Relation between Education and Index of Knowledge of HIV/AIDS, by Country Table H.20: Relation between Education and Probability of Reading Newspapers Frequently, by Country Table H.21: Relation between Education and Probability of Listening to the Radio Frequently, by Country Table H.22: Relation between Education and Probability of Watching TV Frequently, by Country Table H.23: Construction of Index of Improvement in Social Outcomes from Six Years of Primary School, 36 Sub-Saharan African Countries Figures Figure O.1: Sub-Saharan Africa's Educational Pyramid, ca. 2009 Figure O.2: Projected Primary Completion Rates by 2015 in Low-Income Sub-Saharan African Countries Figure O.3: Correlation of Reading Ability and Length of Schooling, Selected Sub-Saharan African Countries Figure O.4: Public Spending on Education in Sub-Saharan African Countries (Capital and Recurrent), ca. 2005 Figure O.5: Tradeoff between Teacher Salary and Pupil-Teacher Ratio at Primary Level in Selected Sub-Saharan African Countries, ca. 2003 Figure O.6: Number of Schools by Per-Student Spending, Burundi and Malawi, ca. 2004 Figure 1.1: Sub-Saharan Africa's Educational Pyramid, ca. 2009 Figure 1.2: Primary School Entry and Retention Rates in Sub-Saharan African Countries, ca. 2009 Figure 1.3: Relationship between Per Capita GDP and School-Life Expectancy in Low-Income Sub-Saharan African Countries, 1990–2009 Figure 1.4: Growth in Primary Education Coverage in 33 Low-Income Sub-Saharan African Countries, 1990–2009 Figure 1.5: Relative Gains in Education Coverage, by Education Level, in 33 Low-Income Sub-Saharan African Countries, 1990–2009 Figure 1.6: Average Annual PCR Growth in 33 Low-Income Sub-Saharan African Countries, 1999–2009 Figure 1.7: Projected Primary Completion Rates through 2015 in Low-Income Sub-Saharan African Countries Figure 1.8: Projected Enrollment in Lower Secondary Education by 2020 as a Multiple of Enrollments in 2003 Figure 2.1: Gender Gap in the Primary Completion Rate, by Sub-Saharan Africa Country, 2008 Figure 2.2: Comparison of Gender Disparities in Three Groups of Sub-Saharan Africa Countries, 2008 Figure 2.3: Relationship between Education Coverage and Gender Disparity in Primary Education Sub-Saharan Africa Countries, 2008 Figure 2.4: Difference between Actual and Model-Predicted Gender Parity Index in Primary Education, by Sub-Saharan Africa Country, 2008 Figure 2.5: Comparison of Gender Disparities in Education by Data Source, Sub-Saharan Africa Countries, ca. 2005 Figure 3.1: Typical Schooling Profile in a Low-Income Country Figure 3.2 Proportion of Out-of-School Children in 33 Low-Income Sub-Saharan African Countries, ca. 2003 Figure 3.3: Relationship between the Proportion of Out-of-School Children at Beginning and End of the Primary Cycle, in 33 Low-Income Sub-Saharan African Countries, 2003 Figure 3.4: Risk of Being Out of School by Gender, Location, and Wealth, Aggregate for Low-Income Sub-Saharan African Countries, 2003 Figure 3.5 Distribution of Out-of-School Children by Gender, Location, and Wealth, Aggregate for Selected Low-Income Sub-Saharan African Countries, ca. 2003 Figure 3.6: Distribution of Out-of-School Children by Gender, Location, and Wealth in Selected Low-Income Sub-Saharan African Countries, ca. 2003 Figure 3.7: Extent of Differences between Out-of-School and Enrolled Children in 30 Low-Income Sub-Saharan African Countries Figure 3.8: Suggested Targeting to Reach 35 Million Out-of-School Children in 33 Low-Income Sub-Saharan African Countries Figure 4.1: Public Spending on Education in Sub-Saharan African Countries (Capital and Recurrent), ca. 2005 Figure 4.2: Trend in ODA to Sub-Saharan Africa, 1990–2007 Figure 4.3: Growth in Government Revenue and ODA in Sub-Saharan Africa, 1997–2007 Figure 4.4: Ranking of Sub-Saharan African Countries by Per-Student Spending on Primary Education Figure 4.5: Patterns of Coverage and Per-Student Spending by Educational Level in Sub-Saharan African Countries, ca. 2005 Figure 4.6: Relation of School-Life Expectancy and Education Spending in Selected Sub-Saharan African Countries, ca. 2005 Figure 4.7: Per-Student Spending and GER at the Primary Level in Low-Income Sub-Saharan African Countries, ca. 2003 Figure 4.8: Comparison of Average Teacher Salary and Pupil-Teacher Ratio at Primary Level in 16 Sub-Saharan African Countries with Similar Per-Student Spending, ca. 2003 Figure 4.9: School Distribution in Burundi and Malawi, by Per-Student Spending, ca. 2004 Figure 4.10: Relation between Numbers of Students and Teachers at Primary Level in Benin and Madagascar, 2005/06 Figure 5.1: Correlation of ASLI Scores with GDP per Capita and Primary Completion Rate in 31 Sub-Saharan African Countries, ca. 2005 Figure 5.2: Literacy and Length of Studies, Selected Sub-Saharan African Countries Figure 5.3: Relationship between Per-Student Spending on Primary Level and the Africa Student Learning Index, 31 Sub-Saharan African Countries. ca. 2005 Figure 5.4: Relationship between Public Per Student Spending on Education and Performance on the 2009 PISA Mathematics Test, 27 OECD Countries Figure 5.5: Relation between Primary Schools' National Exam Pass Rates and Per-Student Spending Figure 5.6: Relationship between Primary Teacher Salary and GER in Selected Sub-Saharan African Countries Figure 6.1: Relationship between Educational Attainment and the Risk Poverty, Benin 2001, and Sub-Saharan African Average Figure 6.2: Relationship between Women's Educational Attainment and Childbearing, Sub-Saharan African Average Figure 6.3: Relationship between Women's Educational Attainment and Prenatal Health Care, Sub-Saharan African Average Figure 6.4: Relationship between Mothers' Educational Attainment and Child Health and Development, Sub-Saharan African Average Figure 6.5: Relationship between Educational Attainment and Awareness of HIV/AIDS, Sub-Saharan African Average Figure 6.6: Relationship between Educational Attainment and Exposure to Information Media, Sub-Saharan African Average Figure 6.7: Cross-Country Variation in the Relationship between Education, Live Births and Child Vaccination in Selected Sub-Saharan African countries Figure 6.8: Relationship between Effectiveness at Generating Social Outcomes and the ASLI Scores in Sub-Saharan African Countries Figure 6.9: Relationship between National Average Level Social Outcome Indicators and Change in Indicators from Six Years of Primary Education, Sub-Saharan African Countries Figure 7.1: Employment by Sector in 23 Sub-Saharan African Countries, Circa 2003 Figure 7.2: Farm Employment by Per Capita GDP in 23 Sub-Saharan African Countries, Circa 2003 Figure 7.3: Formal and Public Sector Employment by Per Capita GDP in 23 Sub-Saharan African Countries, Circa 2003 Figure 7.4: Relation between Employment in Informal Non-Farm Sector Employment and Unemployment Rate in 23 Sub-Saharan African Countries, Circa 2003 Figure 7.5: Highest Level of Schooling among Working-Age Population in 23 Sub-Saharan African Countries, Circa 2003 Figure 7.6: Relationship between Share of Population with Upper Secondary or Higher Education and Per Capita GDP in 23 Sub-Saharan African Countries, Circa 2003 Figure 7.7: Comparison of Educational Attainment of Two Generations in Ghana, Mozambique, Zambia and Aggregate for 23 Sub-Saharan African Countries, Circa 2003 Figure 7.8: Share of WorkForce Employed in the Formal and Informal Sectors, by Highest Level of Education Attended, Circa 2003 Figure 7.9: Shares Working in Farm vs. Non-Farm Sectors, and in Public vs. Modern Private Sectors, by Education Level, Circa 2003 Figure 7.10: Simulation of Higher Education Enrollment Associated with 25% Unemployment among 25-34 Year Olds with Higher Education, by Per Capita GDP, in Selected Sub-Saharan African Countries Maps Map 1.1: Primary School Completion Rates in Sub-Saharan Africa, 2009