A Grammar of Central Alaskan Yupik (CAY)

Description

The volume is a major grammar of Central Alaskan Yupik (CAY). It is the culmination of the author's linguistic studies done in Alaska and elsewhere since around 1960, with assistance of many native speakers. Central Alaskan Yupik is currently the most vigorous of the nineteen remaining Native Alaskan languages. Descriptive in nature, extensive and deep, this grammar is of typological and of ethnological/anthropological interest. Given the severely endangered state of the language, this much of descriptive linguistic material is without comparison in the field. Acknowledgements Foreword List of tables List of phonological rules Abbreviations and conventions Maps Part 1: Preliminaries Chapter 1. Introductory 1.1. Profiles of Eskimo languages 1.2. CAY - Speakers and dialects 1.3. Postcontact status and current status 1.4. Previous studies and sources for this description 1.5. CAY’s geographical placement among neighboring languages Chapter 2. A word in Yupik 2.1. A word as a “form” 2.2. Bilateral articulation 2.2.1. Words and syllables as minimal forms 2.2.2. A glimpse into the “form” 2.2.3. “Mismatches” 2.3. Words, bound phrases, and phrases 2.3.1. Clitic vs. non-clitic bound phrase 2.3.2. Strongly vs. weakly bound 2.3.3. Detached or hetero-articulations 2.4. Illustrations from CAY 2.5. Implications of formhood Chapter 3. Phonological preliminaries 3.1. Representations 3.2. Vowels 3.2.1. Three full vowels and schwa 3.2.2. Single vs. double vowels 3.2.3. Vowel clusters 3.2.4. Phonetic specifications 3.3. Consonants 3.3.1. Place-of-articulation contrasts 3.3.2. Manner-of-articulation contrasts 3.3.2.1. Phonological alternations 3.3.2.2. Dialect variations 3.3.3. Voiceless vs. voiced 3.3.3.1. Phonological alternations 3.3.3.2. Dialectal variations 3.3.4. Single vs. geminate 3.3.4.1. Names 3.3.4.2. Loanwords 3.3.4.3. Intensification 3.3.5. Phonotactics 3.3.5. 1. Word-medial 3.3.5.2. Word-initial 3.3.5.3. Word-final 3.3.5.4. Final truncation 3.3.6. Phonetic specifications 3.4. Phonological units 3.5. Prosody 3.6. Practical orthography 3.6.1. Use of alphabets 3.6.2. Use of apostrophes 3.6.3. Use of hyphens 3.6.4. Different manners of writing Chapter 4. Morphological preliminaries 4.1. General characteristics 4.1.1. Predominant suffixation 4.1.2. Agglutination 4.1.3. Non-templatic polysynthesis 4.1.3.1. Derivational suffixes in advance 4.1.3.2. Postinflectional derivation 4.1.4. Ergativity and case-marking 4.1.4.1. Morphological ergativity 4.1.4.2. Double marking 4.1.4.3. Case marking 4.2. Word and its constructions 4.2.1. Three word classes - nominals, verbs, non-inflecting words 4.2.2. Constituents of inflecting words - stem, derivation, and inflection 4.2.2.1. Morpheme shapes and suffix types 4.2.2.2. Morpheme sequence illustrated 4.2.3. Stems 4.2.3.1. Classification 4.2.3.2. Shape of stems 4.2.3.3. Lexical stock in trade: native and loan 4.2.4. Inflectional suffixes (inflections) 4.2.5. Derivational suffixes 4.2.5.1. Classification: transcategorial vs. stem-elaborating 4.2.5.2. Suffix order 4.2.5.3. Composite suffixes and cyclical expansion 4.2.5.4. Morphological expansions illustrated 4.2.5.4.1 Polysynthetic words 4.2.5.4.2 Multiple embedding 4.2.5.5. Periphrasis 4.2.5.5.1 Derivational suffixes vs. stems 4.2.5.5.2 Splitting with expletive \pi-\ - periphrastic constructions 4.3. Morphological anomalies Chapter 5. Syntactical preliminaries 5.1. Constituents of clauses 5.1.1. Verbs - intransitive vs. transitive 5.1.1.1. Verb stems - primary and valency-modified 5.1.1.2. Passives (vs. antipassives) 5.1.1.3. Various derived verbs 5.1.2. NPs 5.1.3. Peripherals 5.2. Clause linkings 5.2.1. Coordinate, subordinate, and cosubordinate 5.2.2. Nominalizations 5.3. Sentence types 5.3.1. Questions - content, polar, alternative, echo, indefinite, indirect 5.3.2. Commands - direct and indirect 5.3.3. Exclamations and vocatives 5.3.4. Predicate-less sentences 5.3.5. Direct and indirect speech 5.4. Constituent order 5.4.1. Some tendencies 5.4.2. Detached constructions 5.4.3. Disambiguation 5.4.4. Fronting Chapter 6. Sociolinguistic notes 6.1. Hedging 6.2. (Dis)honorific (or attitudinal) expressions 6.3. Word taboos 6.4. Wordplay Part 2: Phonology Chapter 7. Segmental adjustments 7.1. (C)VC-stem/root strengthening: (P1) 7.2. Initial fricativization: (P2) 7.3. Initial velar adjustments: (P3) 7.4. Final velar adjustments: (P4) 7.5. Final apical adjustments: (P5) 7.6. Central vowel adjustments: (P6) 7.7. Schwa insertion: (P7) 7.8. Schwa deletion: (P8) 7.9. Final velar veletion: (P9) 7.10. Intervocalic velar deletion: (P10) 7.11. Weak velar fricative deletion: (P11) 7.12. Labiovelar fricativization: (P12) 7.13. Devoicing: (P13) 7.14. Post-devoicing cluster adjustments: (P14) 7.15. /t/affrication: (P15) 7.16. /v/ and /z/ adjustments: (P16) 7.17. Word-final adjustments: (P17) Chapter 8. Prosody 8.1. Rhythmical accent: (P18i) 8.2. Regressive accent: (P18ii) 8.2.1. Avoiding /V́ .V/: (P18ii.a) 8.2.2. Avoiding /CVC.CV́/: (P18ii.b) 8.2.3. Avoiding /CV.Cí?/: (P18ii.c) 8.2.31. Blocking: (P18ii.d-g) 8.2.3.2. Foot restructuring: (P18ii.h) 8.3. Deaccentuation: (P18iii) 8.4. Regressive accent in bound phrases: (P18iv) 8.4.1. Before anon-enclitic boundary (P18iv.a) 8.4.2. Before an enclitic boundary: (P18iv.b) 8.5. /ɣ̇a/ and /ɣa/ deletion (syllable contraction): (P18v) 8.5.1. Within inflections: (P18v.a) 8.5.2. Before other consonants: (P18v.b) 8.5.3. Dialect variations 8.6. CV-stem weakening: (P18vi) 8.7. Lexical and affective disturbances: (P18vii) 8.8. Double vowel contraction: (P18viii) Chapter 9. Postprosodic adjustments 9.1. /a/ raising: (P19) 9.2. Vowel cluster adjustments: (P20) 9.3. Postprosodic devoicing: (P21) - Kuskokwim dialect 9.4. Pre-boundary fricativization: (P22) 9.5. Affective adjustments (P23) 9.6. Truncation (P24) 9.7. Boundaries and potential pauses in summary Part 3: Nominals Chapter 10 Nominal inflection and ambivalent stems 10.1. Nominal inflections 10.2. Nominal stems 10.3. Most basic stems - \pi-\ and \ca-\ 10.3.1. |pi-| 10.3.2. |ca-| 10.4. Ambivalent stems 10.5. Roots Chapter 11. Nouns 11.1. Appositive nouns 11.2. Location nouns 11.2.1. Stems 11.2.2. Syntax and semantics 11.2.2.1. Stem specifics 11.2.3. Derivation 11.2.3.1. Nominal elaboration (NN) 11.2.3.2. Verbalization 11.3. Time words 11.3.1. Inflection 11.3.2. Syntax 11.3.3. Derivation 11.3.4. Ambivalent time words 11.3.5. Seasons, months, and days of week 11.3.6. Non-native expressions of time 11.4. Kinship terms 11.4.1. Iroquoian type 11.4.2. Reciprocal relatives |-ki̵lɣ̇iiɣ/t| 11.4.3. ‘Part, relative, partner’ - |ila-|, |aipaɣ̇-| 11.5. Color terms 11.6. Proper names 11.6.1. Names 11.6.2. Teknonymy 11.6.3. Place names 11.7. Onomatopoeia 11.7.1. Non-nominal Chapter 12. Demonstratives 12.1. Demonstrative roots 12.2. Nominal demonstratives 12.2.1. Morphology 12.2.2. Syntax 12.2.3. Semantics - categorization through demonstratives 12.2.3.1. Extended vs. non-extended 12.2.3.2. Categories IX and X: ‘down/below’ vs. ‘out, toward river’ 12.2.3.3. Category XII: ‘outside’ (without reference to the river) 12.2.3.4. Motion toward vs. away 12.2.3.5. |u-| vs. |mat-| 12.2.3.6. Anaphora 12.2.4. References to areas/villages 12.2.5. Derivation 12.3. Adverbial demonstratives 12.3.1. Morphology 12.3.2. Syntax 12.3.2.1. Adverbial adjuncts 12.3.2.2. Interjectives 12.3.3. Derivation 12.4. Verbal demonstratives Chapter 13. Personal pronouns 13.1. Morphology 13.1.1. \wa(ŋa)-\ first person 13.1.2. |i̵̵l̵/(i̵)-|non-first person 13.2. Syntax 13.2.1. Anaphoric 13.2.2. Reflexive 13.2.3. Reciprocal 13.2.4. Other requirements 13.3. Derivation 13.4. |nakmi-| 13.4.1. |nakmiin| 13.4.2. Derivatives Chapter 14. Numerals and quantifiers 14.1. Numeral stems 14.2. Inflection 14.3. Phrasal numerals 14.3.1. Adnominal verbs with -luku 14.3.1.1. Addition: cip-luku 14.3.1.1.1. Fluctuation in number agreement 14.3.1.1.2. ‘more than X’ 14.3.1.2. Subtraction 14.3.1.3. Relational -ngu-luni and -ngu-luku 14.3.1.4. Halving : avg-u-luku/aveg-luku 14.3.2. Appositive phrases - multiplication 14.3.3. Juxtaposed phrases - combination 14.4. Higher numerals: 100, 1000, and beyond 14.5. Derivation 14.6. Syntax 14.7. Group (collective) numerals 14.8. Frequency numerals 14.9. Ordinal numerals 14.10. Quantifiers 14.10.1. |i̵l̵ma(ɣ̇a)ɣ̇-| ‘a little bit of amount’ (food, fish, water, etc.) 14.10.2. lamlɣ̇-| ‘(to be) many, much; to do (something) too much’ 14.10.2.1. Verbal 14.10.3. |tama(lku)ɣ̇-| ‘(to be) a whole one (sg.)/all different kinds (pl.)’ 14.10.3.1. Verbal 14.10.4. |kii-| ‘alone, only’ (~[HBC] |ki̵yi-|~[Mountain Village] |ki̵zi-|) 14.10.4.1. Verbal Chapter 15. Ignoratives 15.1. Functions and morphology 15.2. Ignorative stems 15.2.1. |ca-|‘(to do) what’ 15.2.1.1. Verbal |ca-| ‘to do what’ 15.2.1.2. |ciin|‘why’ 15.2.2. |k(t)-|‘who’ 15.2.3. |na-|‘where’ 15.2.3.1. |nat-| ‘where/when (in relation to), what part (of)’ 15.2.3.2. |nalif-| ‘which one’ 15.2.3.3. |nauwa| ‘where’ 15.2.4. |qa(y)-| ‘when’ 15.2.4.1. |qayvaf-| ‘when (in the past)’ 15.2.4.2. |qaku-| ‘when (in the future); later’ 15.2.5. |qai-| ‘how’, attested in two particles 15.2.5.1. |qailun| (particle) ‘how’ 15.2.5.2. |qayu-| ‘how’ 15.2.6. |qavcif-| ‘(to be/do) how many/much’ 15.3. Non-interrogative uses 15.3.1. Indefinite 15.3.2. Negative Chapter 16. Nominal phrases 16.1. Appositive phrases 16.1.1. Verbalization 16.2. Coordinate phrases 16.2.1. Reflexive third person within a coordinate phrase 16.3. Juxtaposed phrases 16.4. Attributive (genitive) phrases 16.5. Adjunctional phrases (with oblique case NP) 16.6. Adnominal clauses (verbs) - appositional and stative-connective Part 4: Nominal derivation Chapter 17. Relative clauses 17.1. CAY relative clauses in general 17.1.1. Relativizers and arguments to be relativized 17.1.2. Morpho-syntactic properties 17.2. Participial relativizers 17.2.1. Intransitive VNrl |-lɣ̇iaɣ̇-| ~ |+1ŋuɣ̇*-| (variant after final /t/) 17.3. Preterite relativizers VNrl |-l̵ɣ̇-| 17.3. Preterite relativizers VNrl |-l̵ɣ̇-| 17.4. Passive relativizers (P argument) 17.4.1. VNrl |-1ki̵ŋaɣ̇-| processive (or perfective) 17.4.2. VNrl |+ɣaɣ̇-| 17.4.3. VNrl |+ɣaɣ̇kaɣ̇-| 17.5. Agentive/active relativizer 17.5.1. VNrl \+(s)t-\ 17.5.2. |+(s)ti̵l̵ɣ̇-|Past connotation by addition of NN |-l̵ɣ̇-| 17.5.3. |+(s)ti̵kaɣ̇-| Future connotation by addition of NN|+kaɣ̇- 17.6. Oblique relativizers 17.6.1. Locational 17.6.2. Instrumental 17.7. Concatenated relative clauses 17.8. Transcategorial conversions of relative clauses 17.8.1. Reverbalization: V→VNrl→NV 17.8.2. Renominalization: N→NV→VNrl/VNnm 17.9. Non-core roles in main clauses Chapter 18. Nominal clauses 18.1. Nominal clauses: basic properties 18.1.1. Different types of verbs 18.1.2. Nominal clause complemented 18.1.2.1. Intransitive nominalizations 18.1.2.2. Transitive nominalizations 18.1.3. With no person inflection 18.1.4. Elaborations of nominal clauses 18.1.4.1. Verbal categories retained 18.1.4.2. Further expansions 18.1.4.3. Subordination and cosubordination to a nominalization 18.1.5. Indirect interrogative clauses 18.1.6. Deverbal nouns 18.2. Various nominalizers (VVnm) 18.2.1. |+(u)ciɣ̇-|, etc 18.2.1.1. VNnm |+(u)ciɣ̇-| 18.2.1.2. VNnm |+(u)ciɣ̇kaɣ̇-| 18.2.1.3. Composite suffixes 18.2.2. |-l̵ɣ̇-|, etc 18.2.2.1. VNnm |-l̵ɣ̇-| 18.2.2.2. VNnm |--l̵i̵ɣ̇kaɣ̇|(future) 18.2.3. VNnm | + 1caɣ̇aɣ̇- 18.3. Bifunctional |-nɣ̇-| 18.3.1. Abstract |-nɣ̇-| vs. deverbal |+1nɣ̇-| 18.3.1.1. Abstract nominalization |-nɣ̇-| 18.3.1.2. Deverbal nouns |+1nɣ̇-| 18.3.2. Comparative nominal |-nj-| (~ post-apical |-1-l̵ɣ̇-| 18.3.2.1. Comparative phrases 18.3.2.2. Comparative clauses 18.4. Nominalizations in main clauses 18.4.1. With absolutive-case marking 18.4.2. With relative-case marking 18.4.3. Ablative-modalis case marking 18.4.4. With allative-case marking for a peripheral argument Chapter 19. Other deverbal nouns 19.1. Agent nouns 19.2. Miscellaneous Chapter 20. Nominal elaborations 20.1. Adjectival 20.1.1. Qualifying 20.1.2. Belonging 20.2. Associative 20.3. (Dis)honorifics (HNR) (NNh/VVh) 20.4. Nominal cyclical expansion ( N→V→N) Part 5: Nominal categories Chapter 21. Number 21.1. Duality in kinships 21.2. Associative non-singular 21.3. Collective/generic singular 21.4. Partitive singular 21.5. Composite objects in the non-singular 21.6. Number of place names Chapter 22. Person (possessor) 22.1. First, second, and third persons 22.1.1. Third-person possessor in attributive phrases 22.2. Reflexive-third person 22.3. Possessed nominals in oblique cases 22.4. Emphasis on the possessor 22.5. Inalienability Chapter 23. Absolutive case 23.1. S/P function- intransitive subject and transitive object 23.2. Absolutive vs. locative Chapter 24. Relative case 24.1. G function (genitive) 24.2. A function (ergative) 24.2.1. Natural elements 24.2.2. Other miscellaneous nouns 24.2.3. Nominal clauses 24.2.4. Standard of comparison 24.2.5. Non-prototypical A arguments 24.3. Verb stems in the relative case 24.3.1. G function 24.3.2. A function 24.4. Ambivalence Chapter 25. Ablative-modalis case 25.1. Starting point, etc 25.1.1. In adjunctional phrases 25.2. Syntactic 25.2.1. Demoted NPs 25.2.2. Stranded NPs 25.2.3. Ablative-modalis for pseudo-passives 25.3. Composite ablative |±niɣ̇ni̵ɣ| Chapter 26. Allative case 26.1. Direction, etc 26.1.1. In adjunctional phrases 26.1.2. Allative-derived verbalizations 26.2. Syntactic Chapter 27. Locative case 27.1. Location, etc 27.2. Relation/concern/judgement 27.3. Standard of comparison 27.4. Reference to a first or second person argument 27.5. Vocative 27.6. Exclamative 27.7. In adjunctional phrases 27.8. Locative verbs - NV |+m(i?)t-| ~ |+[person]n(i?)t-| 27.9. Double case-marking 27.9.1. Location locative + comparison locative 27.9.2. Location locative + comparison equalis 27.9.3. Temporal locative/ablative + composite ablative Chapter 28. Perlative case 28.1. Location 28.1.1. Perlative-derived verbalizations 28.2. Instruments, etc Chapter 29. Equalis case 29.1. Equality and similarity 29.2. Comparison of equaliy 29.3. Manner and time Chapter 30. Case assignments 30.1. Preliminaries 30.1.1. Seven cases - syntactic and oblique 30.1.2. Core arguments and valency modification 30.2. Case assignment according to argument hierarchy 30.2.1. Primary (non-extended) simplex verbs 30.2.2. Extended simplex verbs 30.2.3. Complex verbs 30.3. Argument reduction and detransitivization 30.3.1. Reduction - demotion (two types) and agent coreference 30.3.2. Detransitivization 30.3.2.1. Antipassive 30.3.2.2. Passive 30.3.2.3. Medio-passive 30.3.2.4. Reflexives and reciprocals 30.4. Stranded NPs 30.4.1. From nominal phrases 30.4.2. |pi-| constructions 30.5. Cases in nominalized clauses 30.5.1. Nominal clauses (complementations) 30.5.2. Relative clauses 30.6. Five syntactically relevant cases, with the locative included Chapter 31. Vocatives 31.1. Final vowel doubling 31.2. Possessor marker in the relative case 31.3. Final truncation Part 6: Verbs Chapter 32. Verb inflection 32.1. Valency and its modifications 32.1.1. Modifications 32.1.2. Intransitive vs. transitive 32.2. Subject and object persons 32.2.1. Verbal person markers 32.3. Cross-reference/agreement 32.3.1. Disagreement 32.3.2. Disguised person 32.4. Six moods and reflexive third person Chapter 33. Monovalent (intransitive) stems 33.1. Primary monovalent stems 33.2. Denominal monovalent stems 33.3. Impersonal monovalent stems 33.4. Transitive use of monovalent stems (zero derivation) 33.4.1. Locational P 33.4.2. Impersonal and personal A 33.4.3. Denominal stems with impersonal A 33.5. Transitivization (suffix-derived) Chapter 34. Bivalent (monotransitive) stems 34.1. Agentive stems (S=A) 34.1.1. Antipassives (zero-derived) 34.1.2. Passives 34.1.2.1. TAM-sensitive 34.1.2.2. Pseudo-passives 34.2. Patientive stems 34.2.1. Medio-passives 34.2.2. Antipassives (suffix-derived) 34.3. Impersonal-patientive stems 34.3.1. Transitive vs. intransitive 34.3.2. Impersonal verbs in summary 34.4. Reflexives and reciprocals 34.4.1. Reflexives 34.4.2. Reciprocals 34.5. Causative verbs: simplex vs. complex 34.6. Contrast among various transitive verbs 34.7. |pi-| verbs Chapter 35. Trivalent (ditransitive) stems 35.1. Two types of ditransitives 35.1.1. Secundative 35.1.2. Indirective 35.1.2.1. Applicative extended 35.1.2.2. Variable stems 35.1.3. Valency rearrangements 35.1.4. Valency increase (extension) of ditransitives 35.2. Syntactic properties 35.2.1. Detransitivization 35.2.1.1. Passivization 35.2.1.2. Antipassivization 35.2.1.3. Reflexivization 35.2.1.4. Reciprocalization 35.2.2. Nominalization 35.2.3. Relativization 35.2.4. Questions 35.3. Ditransitives compared with extended trivalents Chapter 36. Root-derived stems 36.1. Emotional roots 36.2. Postural roots 36.2.1. Direct inflection with no expander 36.3. Others Part 7: Verbal derivation Chapter 37. Relational (equational) verbs (NVrv) 37.1. Stative intransitive NVrv |+ŋu-| ‘to be’ 37.2. Stative transitive NVrv |-ki-| 37.2.1. As VV suffix 37.3. Inchoative intransitive NVrv |+ŋuɣ̇c-| 37.3.1. Transitive inflection 37.4. Inchoative transitive NVrv |-k(i̵)saɣuc-| 37.4.1. As VV suffix |-1k(i̵)saɣuc-| 37.5. Morphosyntactic properties of relational verbs 37.5.1. Difference from non-relational denominal verbs 37.5.2. Co-occurrence with deverbalized clauses 37.5.3. Cyclical verbal expansion 37.5.3.1. Verbal markers 37.5.3.2. Verbal cyclical expansion (V→N→V) Chapter 38. Non-relational verbalizations (NV) 38.1. Possession/existence/deprivation 38.2. Action verbs 38.3. |-li-| group 38.4. Quantity/quality/size 38.5. Miscellaneous Chapter 39. Simplex verb modifications (VVsm) 39.1. Agent 39.1.1. I+c-I 39.1.2. |+caɣ̇-|/|+caa(ɣ̇a)ɣ̇-| 39.1.3. |+ciɣ̇-| 39.1.4. |-ɣ̇i̵-| 39.2. Necessitative impersonal agent 39.2.1. Impersonal 39.2.1.1. Modality 39.2.2. Further expansions 39.3. Pseudo-passive 39.3.1. VVsm|+(s)ci(u)ɣ̇-| 39.3.2. |+ɣau-| / |+ɣaqi̵-| 39.4. Applicative experiencer 39.4.1. Applicative VVsm |+(u)c-| 39.4.2. Various roles with transitive inflection 39.4.3. Detransitivization of |+(u)c-|-derived stems 39.4.4. |+(u)c-| antipassives 39.4.5. Various derivations 39.5. Adversative experiencer |+ɣi1-| 39.5.1. Transitive vs. intransitive inflection 39.5.2. Two ways |+ɣi-| is detransitivized 39.5.3. A brief comparative note 39.6. Antipassives (suffix-derived) 39.6.1. VVsm |+ɣi2-| (cf. P15iii) 39.6.2. VVsm|-1ki̵ŋi̵-| 39.6.3. Recursive modifications by E extensions 39.7. Valency increase and rearrangement 39.7.1. VVsm|+(u)tiki-| 39.7.2. VVsm|+1Viki-| 39.7.3. Valency rearrangement derived from suffix composite Chapter 40 Complex transitives (VVcm) 40.1. Intransitive inflections 40.2. Six kinds 40.2.1. Causative (causing/having) |-vkaɣ̇-| ~ |+cic-| 40.2.1.1. Coreferential marker (CRF) 40.2.1.2. Secondary: |+citaaɣ̇-| 40.2.2. Directive (asking): |+sqi-| 40.2.2.1. Secondary: |+squma-| 40.2.3. Speculative (or jussive; thinking) |+1Cuki̵- 40.2.3.1. Secondary: |+naɣuki̵-| 40.2.4. Reportative (saying): |+ni-| 40.2.5. Ignorative (not sure/known): |+(u)ciit-| 40.2.5.1. Other ignoratives 40.2.6. Expectant VVcm |-ni̵ɣ̇ciɣ̇-| 40.3. Derivations of complex verbs 40.3.1. Suffix orders 40.3.2. Double complex transitives 40.3.3. Multi-layered complex transitives 40.4. Nominalizations of complex transitives 40.4.1. Relative clauses 40.4.2. Nominal clauses 40.5. Adjuncts to complex transitives 40.6. Periphrastic complex transitives 40.7. Case alignments of complex transitive constructions Part 8: Verb elaboration Chapter 41. Adverbial (VVa) 41.1. Manner 41.2. Time (speed/precedence) 41.3. Intensity (degree/extent) 41.3.1. Group 1 |-piɣ| ~ |-piaɣ̇-|, etc 41.3.2. Group 2 |+paɣ-|, etc 41.3.3. Group 3 |+ŋ*inaɣ̇-|, etc 41.3.4. Group 4 |qaɣ̇| 41.3.5. Group 5 miscellaneous Chapter 42. Tense and aspect (VVt) 42.1. Tense 42.2. Aspect 42.2.1. Inceptive/inchoative (INC) 42.2.2. Momentaneous (MOM) 42.2.3. Continuous/stative/perfective 42.2.4. Iterative (ITR) 42.2.5. Customary (CUS) 42.2.6. Consequential (future/present) (CSQ) Chapter 43. Modality (VVm) 43.1. (Dis)honorifics (VVh/NNh) 43.2. Evidentiality (VVe) Chapter 44. Negation (VVn) 44.1. Double and partial negation Chapter 45. Comparison 45.1. Comparative degree 45.1.1. Intransitive constructions 45.1.2. Transitive constructions 45.1.2.1. Superficial transitive comparatives 45.1.3. Various NPs for comparee and for standard 45.1.4. Various parameters 45.1.5. Numerals of‘more than X’ 45.1.6. Relative clauses of comparative constructions 45.2. Superlative degree 45.2.1. With plural standard of comparison 45.2.2. With intensifier in index 45.3. Inchoative comparison (‘to become more than’) 45.4. Comparative clauses from comparative phrases 45.5. Negative comparison 45.6. Equalitive 45.6.1. Intransitive VVa |+1ta-1 45.6.2. Transitive constructions 45.7. Indices of comparisons summarized 45.8. Peculiarity of case markers |+mi|/|+tun| as standard of comparison 45.9. Lexical comparison Part 9: Verb moods Chapter 46. Indicative mood 46.1. Inflection 46.2. Declarative role 46.3. Non-declarative role Chapter 47. Participial mood 47.1. Inflection 47.2. With a non-inflecting word 47.2.1. |=wa|(~|≠wa|) 47.2.1.1. Occurrence with |--l?i-| 47.2.2. |ima| ‘you know’ 47.2.3. \taŋ\ ‘to see (as it’s a fact)!’ 47.2.4. Miscellaneous particles 47.3. Without a non-inflecting word 47.4. In bi-clausal sentences 47.5. With reflexive third inflection (‘when, because’) 47.6. Converbs 47.6.1. Converb 1 |-lɣ̇iim| ‘when, as’ 47.6.2. Converb 2 -lɣ̇ani| ‘whenever’ Chapter 48. Interrogative mood 48.1. Inflection 48.2. Content questions 48.2.1. In complex transitive constructions 48.2.2. Nominal clauses 48.2.3. Word order 48.3. Indirect (rhetorical) questions ‘I wonder’: |=kiɣ̇| 48.4. Exclamations by interrogative-mood verbs Chapter 49. Optative mood 49.1. Inflection 49.2. Third-person optatives 49.2.1. With non-inflecting words 49.3. First-person optatives 49.3.1. With a non-inflecting word 49.4. Second-person optatives 49.4.1. With non-inflecting words 49.4.2. Periphrastic optatives with |pi-| 49.4.3. |-qaɣ̇-| optatives 49.5. Future optatives: |-1ki-| (1) 49.6. Prohibitional optatives 49.6.1. General prohibition 49.6.2. Future prohibition 49.6.3. Continuative prohibition 49.7. Non-optative use: l-1k-|(2) 49.8. In bi-clausal sentences Chapter 50. Connective mood 50.1. Inflection 50.2. Causal (CNNbc): ‘because, when’ 50.3. Constantive (CNNwv): ‘whenever’ 50.4. Precessive (CNNbf): ‘before’ 50.4.1. Starting point (‘since before’) 50.5. Concessive (CNNth): ‘though, even if 50.6. Conditional (CNNif): ‘if 50.7. Indirective (CNNid) 50.8. Contemporative (CNNwn): ‘when’ 50.9. Simultaneous (CNNwl): ‘while’ 50.10. Stative (CNNst): ‘being in the state of 50.11. Quasi-connectives (CNNqs) 50.11.1. |-lɣ̇-| ~ l-nɣ̇-l ~ l+1viɣ with the allative marker (‘until’) 50.11.2. l-nɣ̇-l (~ |-lɣ̇-|) with perlative or locative marker (‘after’) 50.11.3. l-xaanɣ̇-l with the ablative marker (‘since’) 50.11.4. l+(u)t-l with the locative marker (‘as soon as, when’) 50.11.5. l+(u)ciɣ̇-l with the equalis marker (‘as soon as’) Chapter 51. Appositional mood 51.1. Morphological and syntactic characteristics 51.1.1. Mood marker 51.1.2. Suffix selectivity 51.1.3. Negative appositionals 51.1.4. Morpho-syntactic idiosyncracies 51.1.4.1. First- and second person 51.1.4.2. Third vs. reflexive third person 51.1.4.3. Coreferential marker - lvkaɣ̇l ~ |+cic| 51.2. Cosubordinate clauses 51.2.1. Concomitant circumstances 51.2.2. Temporal settings 51.2.3. Miscellaneous “adverbials” 51.2.4. Coordinate clauses 51.2.5. Cosubordination to lower clauses of complex transitives 51.2.6. Reduplicative use 51.2.7. lca-l and |pi-l 51.2.8. Adjunct to inalienably possessed nominals 51.3. Periphrasis with appositionals 51.3.1. Cosubordination to expletive |pi-| clauses 51.3.1.1. Different splitting 51.3.2. Periphrastic complex transitives - |pi-| and full verbs 51.4. As independent clauses 51.4.1. Declarative 51.4.2. Reply 51.4.3. Interrogative 51.4.4. Optative - command and prohibition 51.5. Adnominal clauses 51.6. Quasi-nominal clauses 51.6.1. As an intransitive subject 51.6.2. Exclamative constructions 51.7. Nominalizations of appositional constructions 51.7.1. Nominal clauses 51.7.2. Relative clauses Part 10: Non-inflecting words Chapter 52. Non-inflecting words in general 52.1. Particles and enclitics 52.2. Constitution 52.3. Functions 52.4. Two exclamative particlizers 52.4.1. VPc|+1paa| 52.4.2. VPc |+naa| ~ |+nii| 52.5. Linkers (linking suffixes) 52.5.1. Following non-inflecting words 52.5.2. Following English words Chapter 53. Particles 53.1. Interjectional/exclamative 53.2. Sentence words 53.3. Sentence adverbials 53.4. Adverbials 53.5. Conjunctionals 53.6. Expletive sentence fillers Chapter 54. Enclitics 54.1. Reactive 54.2. Expressive 54.3. Expressive (negative) 54.4. Reportative/quotative 54.5. Coordinating Appendix Suffix list References/sources Index: Subjects Index: Authors and persons