International Law of Underwater Cultural Heritage: Understanding the Challenges

Description

This book brings together three distinct areas of International Law – namely Environmental, Heritage and Ocean Law – to address the international legal protection of historically significant wrecks, with particular focus on the environmental hazards they may pose. The confluence of Heritage Law and the Law of the Sea with International Environmental Law represents an important development in international governance strategies for the twenty-first century, in particular those legal and administrative regimes that concern the world’s oceans and underwater cultural heritage protection. Importantly, connections between international legal regimes, such as the 1982 Law of the Sea, and institutions like the International Maritime Organisation (IMO) and United Nations Education Scientific Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), can play a crucial part in governance strategies that involve the regulation of marine pollution and historic shipwrecks. Preface Challenges in the International Law of Underwater Cultural Heritage Synopsis Contents About the Authors 1 Introduction 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Why Protect World War II Wrecks? 1.3 Chuuk Lagoon—An Overview 1.3.1 Cultural Heritage Law of the Federated States of Micronesia 1.4 The Legal Framework of Ocean Governance 1.5 Major Themes of This Work 1.6 Structure of This Work References 2 Cultural Heritage—Competing Conceptions and Significance 2.1 Introduction 2.2 What is Cultural Heritage? 2.2.1 Non-legal Definitions and Contemporary Socio-cultural Theories 2.2.2 A ‘Cultural Process’ and a ‘Resource of Power’ 2.2.3 Does Law Perceive Heritage as a ‘Process’ or a ‘Thing’? 2.2.4 Dark Heritage 2.3 Who Owns Cultural Heritage? 2.3.1 Introduction 2.4 Heritage as a Public Interest in Private Property 2.4.1 Introduction 2.4.2 Ownership of Cultural Heritage by States 2.4.3 Cultural Heritage Ownership Under International Law 2.4.4 Philosophical Perspectives on Who Owns Cultural Heritage 2.5 Cultural Nationalism and Internationalism 2.5.1 Does Dualism Remain an Adequate Representation or Framework for Examining Philosophical Questions of Ownership of Cultural Heritage? 2.5.2 Legal Actors in International Law: Nation-States, Individuals and International Organisations 2.5.3 Subnational Groups—Cultural Heritage Ownership Rights 2.6 Conclusion References 3 The Emergence of the International Protection of Cultural Heritage 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Abuse of Cultural Heritage 3.2.1 Abuse of Cultural Heritage—Why Does It Matter? 3.2.2 Abuse of Cultural Heritage in Conflict Zones 3.2.3 Attempts by Dominant Groups to Conceal Cultural Heritage 3.2.4 Destruction of Cultural Heritage Through Commercialisation 3.3 Heritage, Globalisation and International Law 3.4 Embryonic Developments in the Protection of Cultural Heritage 3.4.1 Development of British Ancient Monuments Protection Legislation 3.5 International Developments in the Protection of Cultural Heritage 3.5.1 The Law of the Hague—Rules of Military Engagement 3.6 Protection of Cultural Heritage During Warfare and Conflict 3.6.1 The Hague Convention on the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict 1954 3.6.2 First Protocol to the 1954 Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict 3.6.3 Second (1999) Protocol to the 1954 Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict 3.6.4 The Four Geneva ‘Red Cross’ Conventions of 1949 and Their Additional Protocols of 1977 3.7 Protection of Cultural Heritage in Times of Peace 3.7.1 The 1970 UNESCO Convention on the Means of Protection and Prevention of the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property 3.7.2 The 1972 Convention for the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage 3.7.3 The 1995 UNIDROIT Convention on Stolen or Illegally Exported Cultural Objects 3.7.4 The 2000 United Nations Convention Against Transnational Organised Crime 3.8 International Judicial Protection of Cultural Heritage 3.9 Conclusion References 4 The Physical Environment of Underwater Cultural Heritage 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Why We Need Ocean Governance Regulation: Opening ‘Pandora’s Box’ 4.2.1 Historical Attempts to Recover Lost Relics from the Marine Environment 4.3 The Quest for Treasure Beneath the Seven Seas 4.3.1 The Search for Treasure: Archival Sources 4.4 Oceanic Histories That Focus on the Unique Underwater Cultural Heritage Found Beneath the Water Bodies of the World 4.4.1 The Atlantic Ocean 4.4.2 The Caribbean Sea 4.4.3 The Mediterranean Sea 4.4.4 The Indian Ocean 4.4.5 The Pacific Ocean 4.5 Nan Madol—The ‘Venice of the Pacific’ 4.6 Submerged World War II Cultural Heritage in the Pacific Ocean 4.7 What Is Underwater Cultural Heritage? A Legal Perspective 4.8 Conclusion References 5 Underwater Cultural Heritage: The Legal Environment 5.1 Introduction 5.2 The Intricacies of International Law and the Interface Between Private International Law and Public International Law 5.3 What Is Law? 5.4 International Law and Legal Order in the World’s Ocean’s in Antiquity 5.5 Theories of Law: Natural Law and Positivist Law 5.5.1 Natural Law 5.5.2 Modern Natural Law 5.5.3 Legal Positivism 5.6 International Law in the Grotian Age and the Battle of the Books 5.6.1 Events Leading up to the ‘Battle of the Books’ 5.6.2 Do Hugo Grotius’ Works Remain Relevant to Contemporary Sea Matters? 5.6.3 The Relevance of Grotius’ Writings to the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage 5.7 The Treaty of Westphalia 5.8 The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 5.9 Development of the Law of the Sea—Post World War II 5.9.1 UNCLOS I and the Four Geneva Conventions 5.9.2 The 1958 Convention on the Continental Shelf 5.9.3 UNCLOS II 5.10 UNCLOS III 5.10.1 Political Sensitivities over UNCLOS III and the South China Sea Dispute 5.10.2 South China Sea Dispute 5.11 UNCLOS III as a Legal Regime 5.11.1 Dispute Resolution Mechanisms Within UNCLOS III—Part XV of UNCLOS 5.12 Zonation of the Seabed and Underwater Cultural Heritage 5.12.1 Internal Waters 5.12.2 The Territorial Sea 5.12.3 The Contiguous Zone 5.12.4 The Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) 5.12.5 The Continental Shelf 5.12.6 The High Seas 5.13 Underwater Cultural Heritage Located in the ‘Area’ 5.14 UNCLOS III Structure and Definitions 5.14.1 UNCLOS III—Parts II to XV National Jurisdiction 5.14.2 UNCLOS III—Part XII Protection and Preservation of the Marine Environment 5.14.3 UNCLOS III—Part XIII Scientific Research 5.15 Is UNCLOS III Outmoded? The Case of Genetic Bioprospecting 5.15.1 Genetic Bioprospecting and Historic Wrecks 5.16 Interaction of UNCLOS III and the 2001 CPUCH 5.17 Towards Regulation of Treasure Hunting in the Seven Seas: The 2001 Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage 5.17.1 Introduction 5.18 The History and Development of the 2001 CPUCH 5.19 What Is Underwater Cultural Heritage Within the Context of International Law? 5.20 What Is the Purpose of the 2001 CPUCH? 5.21 Structure and Content of the 2001 CPUCH 5.21.1 Objectives and Principles of the 2001 CPUCH 5.21.2 Salvage 5.21.3 State Cooperation 5.21.4 Illicit Trafficking 5.21.5 Bilateral and Multilateral Agreements 5.21.6 Dispute Resolution 5.22 Concluding Comments on the 2001 CPUCH 5.23 Conclusion References 6 The Private Law Perspective—Rights of Salvage and Innovation in the United States Admiralty Courts 6.1 Introduction 6.2 What is Maritime Law? 6.3 A History of Commerce and Maritime Law: Ancient Sea Courts and Medieval Tribunals 6.4 Maritime Courts and Tribunals of the Ancient and Medieval Worlds—The Commercial Law Hubs 6.5 Sources of Maritime Law 6.5.1 Ancient Maritime Codes 6.6 Medieval Commercial Codes, Sea Tribunals and Courts 6.6.1 Consolato de Mare (Consul of the Sea) 6.6.2 Rolls of Oléron 6.6.3 Visby 6.6.4 The Marine Ordinances of Louis XIV—1681 6.7 England and Maritime Law 6.7.1 The Admirals 6.7.2 The High Court of Admiralty 6.8 The United States Courts of Admiralty 6.9 Jurisdiction of the United States Admiralty Court Over Historic Wrecks 6.10 What is Salvage Law? 6.11 The Protection of Our Maritime Heritage: Historic Shipwreck Salvage Precedents 6.12 The 1989 IMO Salvage Convention 6.13 The Law of Finds 6.13.1 Prerogative Rights of the Sovereign Versus Possessory Rights of the Finder 6.14 The United States Admiralty Courts in the Twenty-First Century 6.14.1 Other Advantages of the United States Admiralty Courts 6.15 Admiralty Judges as Guardians of Our Underwater Cultural Heritage 6.16 Chapter Conclusion References 7 The Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage—Achievements and Present Challenges 7.1 Introduction 7.1.1 Chuuk Lagoon 7.1.2 The Ghost Fleet of Chuuk Lagoon 7.2 Challenges of in Situ Preservation of Toxic World War II Wrecks 7.3 Does the Temporal Definition of Underwater Cultural Heritage Present a Challenge to the in Situ Preservation of World War II Wrecks? 7.4 Parties to the 2001 CPUCH 7.5 Benefits Available to States from Ratifying the 2001 CPUCH 7.5.1 Capacity Building 7.5.2 Cooperation 7.5.3 The Protection of Human Remains 7.5.4 Prehistoric Sites 7.6 Why States Have not Joined the 2001 CPUCH 7.6.1 The Treatment of State Vessels 7.6.2 The Doctrine of Sovereign Immunity of Warships and Ratification of the CPUCH 7.6.3 What is a Warship? 7.6.4 The Origins of the Doctrine of Warship Immunity 7.6.5 Does the Doctrine of Sovereign Immunity Apply to Sunken Warships in the Territorial Sea of Another State (in Contrast to International Waters)? 7.7 Resolution of the Institut de Droit International on the Legal Regime of Wrecks of Warships and Other State Vessels in International Law (2015) 7.8 Toxic Underwater Cultural Heritage—An Overview 7.9 Pacific Wrecks, State Cooperation and State Liability 7.10 In Situ Conservation of Military Wrecks—Toxic Underwater Cultural Heritage 7.10.1 2007 Nairobi Wreck Removal Convention 7.10.2 2009 Hong Kong Ship Recycling Convention 7.10.3 The Rise of International Environmental Concern 7.10.4 Why the 2001 CPUCH Should Address Toxic Underwater Cultural Heritage and World War II Wrecks 7.11 Options for Revision of the 2001 CPUCH 7.12 Problems and Conflicts 7.12.1 Cultural Heritage or an Environmental Hazard? 7.12.2 Unintentional Harms and Unforeseen Consequences of Regulation 7.13 Chapter Conclusion References 8 The Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage—Future Challenges 8.1 Introduction 8.2 The Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage in Disputed Waters—The South China Sea 8.2.1 Introduction 8.2.2 China: ‘The Great Rejuvenation of the Chinese Nation’ and Chinese Maritime Archaeology 8.2.3 The 2001 CPUCH and Protection of Heritage in Disputed Waters 8.2.4 Dangers to Underwater Cultural Heritage in Disputed Waters 8.2.5 Conclusion 8.3 Metal Pirates of the Java and South China Seas 8.3.1 Introduction 8.3.2 The Defined Region: The South China Sea and the Java Sea 8.3.3 The Naval Actions that Claimed the Wrecks of the Java Sea and the South China Sea 8.3.4 A Threatened Heritage 8.3.5 Conclusion 8.4 Extractive Industries and Underwater Cultural Heritage: Coastal Aggregate Mining and Deep Seabed Mining 8.4.1 Introduction 8.4.2 The Seabed and Its Geological Structures 8.4.3 The Deep Seabed Minerals of the Pacific Ocean 8.4.4 Aggregate Mining—Sand and Gravel 8.4.5 Diamonds in the Deep Atlantic 8.4.6 Conclusion 8.5 Sand Mining: Sand Mafias and the War for Natural Resources 8.6 Climate Change, Sea Level Rise and Erosion 8.6.1 Introduction 8.6.2 Human Remains 8.6.3 Permafrost Thawing, Desertification, Acidification 8.6.4 Underwater Cultural Heritage and Climate Change 8.6.5 Intangible Heritage and Climate Change 8.6.6 Law Reform 8.6.7 Conclusion 8.7 Chapter Conclusion References 9 Conclusion 9.1 Introduction 9.2 The Pacific Ocean and the 2001 Underwater Heritage Convention (CPUCH) 9.3 The 2001 Underwater Cultural Heritage Convention in Context of the Broader Ocean Policy of International Law 9.4 The Issue of Salvage and the Value of US Jurisprudence 9.5 Recommendations and Conclusion References Index