The Human Body in Health and Illness

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Front Cover IFC The Human Body in Health and Illness Copyright Dedication Acknowledgments TO THE INSTRUCTOR TEXTBOOK STRENGTHS CLASSROOM RESOURCES STUDY GUIDE EVOLVE INSTRUCTOR LEARNING RESOURCES TEACH Instructor Resource on Evolve TO THE STUDENT TEXTBOOK FEATURES KEY TERMS OBJECTIVES ILLUSTRATIONS ?DO YOU KNOW ?RAMP IT UP! ?RE-THINK ?AS YOU AGE ?SUM IT UP! ?MOVE IT ?GO FIGURE MEDICAL TERMINOLOGY AND DISORDERS TABLES END-OF-CHAPTER FEATURES Summary Outline Review Your Knowledge ANSWERS TO REVIEW YOUR KNOWLEDGE AND GO FIGURE QUESTIONS GLOSSARY STUDY GUIDE Contents 1 - Introduction to the Human Body ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY: WHAT THEY ARE WHAT’S IT MEAN? WHY DO I NEED TO KNOW THIS? THE BODY’S LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION MAJOR ORGAN SYSTEMS HOMEOSTASIS: STAYING THE SAME ANATOMICAL POSITION RELATIVE POSITIONS PLANES OF THE BODY REGIONAL TERMS CAVITIES OF THE BODY DORSAL CAVITY VENTRAL CAVITY THORACIC CAVITY ABDOMINOPELVIC CAVITY Division into Regions Other Cavities 2 - Basic Chemistry MATTER, ELEMENTS, AND ATOMS MATTER ELEMENTS ATOMS ATOMIC STRUCTURE OTHER CHARACTERISTICS OF ATOMS ELECTRON SHELLS CHEMICAL BONDS IONIC BONDS COVALENT BONDS HYDROGEN BONDS POLARITY IONS CATIONS, ANIONS, AND ELECTROLYTES ION FORMATION IONIZATION MOLECULES AND COMPOUNDS MOLECULES COMPOUNDS SOME IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS AND MOLECULES WATER OXYGEN CARBON DIOXIDE CHEMICAL REACTIONS ACIDS AND BASES ACIDS BASES NEUTRALIZATION OF ACIDS AND BASES MEASUREMENT: THE PH SCALE READING THE PH SCALE PH OF BODY FLUIDS ENERGY FORMS OF ENERGY CONVERSION OF ENERGY ENERGY TRANSFER: THE ROLE OF ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE MIXTURES SOLUTIONS SUSPENSIONS PRECIPITATES 3 - Cells TYPICAL CELL CELL MEMBRANE INSIDE THE CELL NUCLEUS CYTOPLASM Cytoplasmic Gel CYTOPLASMIC ORGANELLES Mitochondria Ribosomes Endoplasmic Reticulum Golgi Apparatus Lysosomes Cytoskeleton Centrioles ON THE CELL MEMBRANE MICROVILLI CILIA FLAGELLA PASSIVE TRANSPORT MECHANISMS DIFFUSION FACILITATED DIFFUSION OSMOSIS TONICITY Isotonic Solution Hypotonic Solution Hypertonic Solutions FILTRATION ACTIVE TRANSPORT MECHANISMS ACTIVE TRANSPORT PUMPS ENDOCYTOSIS EXOCYTOSIS CELL DIVISION CELL CYCLE INTERPHASE MITOSIS CELL DIFFERENTIATION STEM CELLS ORDER, DISORDER, AND DEATH 4 - Cell Metabolism METABOLISM CARBOHYDRATES MONOSACCHARIDES DISACCHARIDES POLYSACCHARIDES USES OF GLUCOSE THE BREAKDOWN OF GLUCOSE THE MAKING OF GLUCOSE LIPIDS (FATS) USES OF LIPIDS MAKING FAT PROTEINS AMINO ACIDS USES OF PROTEINS BREAKDOWN OF PROTEIN AND THE PROBLEM WITH AMMONIA Formation of Urea Worrying about ammonia. Why does the liver “worry” about ammonia? Under normal conditions, the liver extracts ammonia (NH3) from... PROTEIN SYNTHESIS AND DNA DNA STRUCTURE THE GENETIC CODE Reading the Code Copying the Code: mRNA mRNA as Copycat STEPS IN PROTEIN SYNTHESIS 5 - Microbiology Basics WHAT IS DISEASE? TYPES OF PATHOGENS Microorganisms (Microbes) OTHER (MULTICELLULAR) DISEASE-CAUSING ORGANISMS THE SPREAD OF INFECTION PORTALS OF ENTRY AND EXIT HOW PATHOGENS SPREAD PERSON-TO-PERSON CONTACT ENVIRONMENT-TO-PERSON CONTACT “TINY ANIMAL”-TO-PERSON CONTACT FIVE GERM-LADEN STORIES DR. SEMMELWEIS SCREAMS, “WASH THOSE MITTS!” FLORA AND HER VAGINAL ITCH RICK, NICK, AND THE SICK TICK WHY TYPHOID MARY NEEDED TO LOSE HER GALLBLADDER A POX NEWS ALERT! 6 - Tissues and Membranes EPITHELIAL TISSUE WHERE IS IT FOUND? WHAT DOES IT DO? WHAT IS IT LIKE? CLASSIFICATION SIMPLE EPITHELIA STRATIFIED EPITHELIA GLANDULAR EPITHELIA CONNECTIVE TISSUE WHERE IS IT FOUND? WHAT IS IT LIKE? CONNECTIVE TISSUE: TISSUE CELLS AND MATRIX TYPES OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE LOOSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE DENSE FIBROUS CONNECTIVE TISSUE CARTILAGE Types of Cartilage BONE BLOOD AND LYMPH NERVOUS TISSUE MUSCLE TISSUE SKELETAL MUSCLE SMOOTH MUSCLE CARDIAC MUSCLE TISSUE REPAIR MEMBRANES CLASSIFICATION OF MEMBRANES EPITHELIAL MEMBRANES CUTANEOUS MEMBRANE MUCOUS MEMBRANES SEROUS MEMBRANES 7 - Integumentary System and Body Temperature FUNCTIONS OF THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM STRUCTURE OF THE SKIN LAYERS OF THE SKIN EPIDERMIS DERMIS THE SKIN TELLS A STORY SUBCUTANEOUS LAYER SKIN COLOR THE WHAT-IFS OF SKIN COLOR CHANGE ACCESSORY STRUCTURES OF THE SKIN HAIR PARTS OF A HAIR HAIR COLOR CURLY, WAVY, OR STRAIGHT STANDING ON END…AND THE GOOSE BUMP HAIR LOSS NAILS THE NAILS TELL STORIES THE WHAT-IFS OF NAILS GLANDS THE WHAT-IFS OF SEBACEOUS GLANDS BODY TEMPERATURE HEAT PRODUCTION HEAT LOSS REGULATION OF TEMPERATURE MORE ABOUT SWEATING AND CHILLING NEWBORNS AND BODY TEMPERATURE TRANSFER OF HEAT: TERMINOLOGY WHEN SKIN IS BURNED 8 - Skeletal System: About Growing Down With Osteoporosis? ARRANGEMENT AND FUNCTIONS OF BONES THE SKELETAL SYSTEM: WHAT IT DOES MANY SIZES AND SHAPES OF BONES BONE TISSUE AND BONE FORMATION COMPACT AND SPONGY BONE PARTS OF LONG BONES OSSIFICATION OSSIFICATION OF FLAT BONES OSSIFICATION OF LONG BONES GROWING BONES GROWING TALLER The What-Ifs of the Epiphyseal Disc GROWING THICKER AND WIDER BUMPS AND GROOVES BROKEN BONES DIVISIONS OF THE SKELETAL SYSTEM AXIAL SKELETON SKULL Cranium The What-Ifs of the Ethmoid Bone Facial Bones Sinuses Sutures: How the Skull Bones Are Held Together The Infant Skull The What-Ifs of the Fontanels and Sutures BONES ASSOCIATED WITH THE SKULL Hyoid Bone Bones of the Middle Ear VERTEBRAL COLUMN The Back and Its Stack of Bones VERTEBRAE Characteristics of Vertebrae Two Special Vertebrae: Atlas (C1) and Axis (C2) Curvatures THORACIC CAGE Sternum Ribs Lines, Margins and Angles APPENDICULAR SKELETON SHOULDER GIRDLE Clavicle Scapula UPPER LIMBS Humerus Radius Ulna Hand Pelvic Girdle Pelvis Coxal Bone LOWER LIMBS Femur Patella Tibia and Fibula Foot JOINTS (ARTICULATIONS) JOINT CLASSIFICATION IMMOVABLE JOINTS SLIGHTLY MOVABLE JOINTS FREELY MOVABLE JOINTS NAMING OF JOINTS FREELY MOVABLE (SYNOVIAL) JOINTS: CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO MOVEMENT HINGE JOINT BALL-AND-SOCKET JOINT PIVOT JOINT SADDLE JOINT GLIDING JOINT CONDYLOID JOINT CLINICALLY “BIG” SYNOVIAL JOINTS KNEE SHOULDER ELBOW HIP Types of Joint Movements 9 - Muscular System TYPES AND FUNCTIONS OF MUSCLES SKELETAL MUSCLE SMOOTH MUSCLE CARDIAC MUSCLE STRUCTURE OF THE WHOLE MUSCLE MUSCLE LAYERS OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE MUSCLE ATTACHMENTS MYOFIBRILS AND SARCOMERES: STRUCTURE FUNCTION: HOW MUSCLES CONTRACT SLIDING FILAMENT MECHANISM THE ROLE OF CALCIUM AND ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE SKELETAL MUSCLES AND NERVES SOMATIC MOTOR NEURON THE MOTOR UNIT THE NEUROMUSCULAR JUNCTION THE STIMULATED MUSCLE MEMBRANE DISORDERS OF THE NEUROMUSCULAR JUNCTION Myasthenia Gravis Neuromuscular Blockade Caused by Curare Effects of Neurotoxins on Muscle Function MUSCLE RESPONSES ENERGY SOURCE FOR MUSCLE CONTRACTION MUSCLE FATIGUE MUSCLE TERMS ORIGIN AND INSERTION PRIME MOVER, SYNERGIST, AND ANTAGONIST THE WHAT-IFS OF MUSCLE OVERUSE AND UNDERUSE HOW SKELETAL MUSCLES ARE NAMED SIZE SHAPE ORIENTATION OF FIBERS LOCATION NUMBER OF ORIGINS ORIGIN AND INSERTION MUSCLE ACTION MUSCLES FROM HEAD TO TOE MUSCLES OF THE HEAD FACIAL MUSCLES CHEWING MUSCLES MUSCLES OF THE NECK STERNOCLEIDOMASTOID TRAPEZIUS MUSCLES OF THE TRUNK MUSCLES INVOLVED IN BREATHING MUSCLES THAT FORM THE ABDOMINAL WALL MUSCLES THAT MOVE THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN MUSCLES THAT FORM THE PELVIC FLOOR MUSCLES OF THE SHOULDER (PECTORAL) GIRDLE AND ARM MUSCLES THAT MOVE THE FOREARM MUSCLES THAT MOVE THE WRIST, HAND, AND FINGERS THE CARPAL TUNNEL MUSCLES THAT MOVE THE THIGH, LEG, AND FOOT MUSCLES THAT MOVE THE FEMUR (THIGH BONE) MUSCLES THAT MOVE THE LEG MUSCLES THAT MOVE THE FOOT 10 - Nervous System: Nervous Tissue and Brain THE NERVOUS SYSTEM: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION DIVISIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM FUNCTIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM SENSORY FUNCTION INTEGRATIVE FUNCTION MOTOR FUNCTION NEUROGLIA NEURON ?PARTS OF A NEURON Three Parts The Axon: A Special Structure WHITE MATTER VERSUS GRAY MATTER THE NEURON CARRYING INFORMATION THE NERVE IMPULSE: WHAT IT IS THE NERVE IMPULSE: WHAT CAUSES IT RESTING MEMBRANE POTENTIAL DEPOLARIZATION REPOLARIZATION THE NERVE IMPULSE: WHAT CAUSES IT TO MOVE THE NERVE IMPULSE: WHAT CAUSES IT TO MOVE QUICKLY SYNAPSE ACROSS NEURONS PARTS OF A SYNAPSE EVENTS AT THE SYNAPSE BRAIN: PARTS AND FUNCTION CEREBRUM GRAY ON THE OUTSIDE, WHITE ON THE INSIDE MARKINGS OF THE CEREBRUM LOBES OF THE CEREBRUM Frontal Lobe Parietal Lobe Temporal Lobe Occipital Lobe FUNCTIONS INVOLVING MANY CEREBRAL LOBES Speech Area ASSOCIATION AREAS PATCHES OF GRAY DIENCEPHALON BRAIN STEM MIDBRAIN PONS MEDULLA OBLONGATA Vomiting Center CEREBELLUM STRUCTURES ACROSS DIVISIONS OF THE BRAIN LIMBIC SYSTEM: THE EMOTIONAL BRAIN RETICULAR FORMATION Reticular Activating System: Wakefulness, Sleep, and Coma Sleep Dreaming MEMORY AREAS BONE: FIRST LAYER OF PROTECTION MENINGES: SECOND LAYER OF PROTECTION CEREBROSPINAL FLUID: THIRD LAYER OF PROTECTION BLOOD–BRAIN BARRIER: FOURTH LAYER OF PROTECTION 11 - Nervous System: Spinal Cord and Peripheral Nerves WHAT THE SPINAL CORD IS LOCATION AND SIZE GRAY ON THE INSIDE, WHITE ON THE OUTSIDE GRAY MATTER WHITE MATTER WHAT THE SPINAL CORD DOES DECUSSATION REFLEXES WHAT REFLEXES ARE THE REFLEX ARC MANY, MANY REFLEXES OUCH! THE WITHDRAWAL REFLEX Organ Reflexes PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM NERVES CLASSIFYING THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION OF THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM Cranial Nerves Spinal Nerves Names and Numbers of Spinal Nerves Spinal Nerve Plexuses What a Dermatome Is FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM 12 - Autonomic Nervous System AUTONOMIC (VISCERAL) REFLEXES WHAT THEY DO PATHWAY ORGANIZATION AND FUNCTION OF THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM DIVISION OF THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM: FIGHT OR FLIGHT PARASYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM: FEED AND BREED AUTONOMIC TERMINOLOGY AND PHARMACOLOGY AUTONOMIC TONE AND VASOMOTOR TONE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM NEURONS NUMBERS AND GANGLIA NEURONS OF THE SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM NEURONS OF THE PARASYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM RUNNING WITH CRANIAL NERVES Oculomotor Nerve (CN III) Facial Nerve (CN Vll) Glossopharyngeal Nerve (CN lX) Vagus Nerve (CN X) NAMING FIBERS AND NEUROTRANSMITTERS NEUROTRANSMITTERS: TERMINATION OF ACTIVITY RECEPTORS OF THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM CHOLINERGIC RECEPTORS ADRENERGIC RECEPTORS AUTONOMIC TERMINOLOGY: “DOING” AUTONOMIC PHARMACOLOGY 13 - Sensory System RECEPTORS AND SENSATION CELLS THAT DETECT STIMULI SENSATION AND PERCEPTION EXPERIENCING A SENSATION FOUR COMPONENTS TWO CHARACTERISTICS OF SENSATION THE GENERAL SENSES PAIN TOUCH AND PRESSURE TEMPERATURE PROPRIOCEPTION THE SPECIAL SENSES SENSE OF SMELL: THE NOSE WHAT A SMELL CAN TELL SENSE OF TASTE: THE TONGUE SOME TASTEFUL COMMENTS SENSE OF SIGHT: THE EYE VISUAL ACCESSORY ORGANS Eyebrows Eyelids THE WHAT-IFS OF EYELID MALFUNCTION Eyelashes Conjunctiva Lacrimal Apparatus Extrinsic Eye Muscles THE EYEBALL Layers of the Eyeball Cavities and Fluids MUSCLES OF THE EYE Extrinsic Eye Muscles Intrinsic Eye Muscles PATHWAY OF LIGHT REFRACTION AND ACCOMMODATION STIMULATION OF THE PHOTORECEPTORS Night Vision Color Vision INFORMING THE BRAIN: THE VISUAL PATHWAY THE WHAT-IFS OF VISION LOSS SENSE OF HEARING: THE EAR STRUCTURE OF THE EAR External Ear Middle Ear Inner Ear HEARING HAPPENS WHEN… THE WHAT-IFS OF HEARING LOSS SENSE OF BALANCE: THE EAR STATIC EQUILIBRIUM DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM 14 - Endocrine System ENDOCRINE GLANDS CLASSIFICATION OF HORMONES TARGETS HORMONE RECEPTORS CONTROL OF HORMONE SECRETION FEEDBACK LOOPS BIORHYTHMS CONTROL BY THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM PITUITARY GLAND AND THE HYPOTHALAMUS ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND Growth Hormone The What-Ifs of GH excess and deficiency PROLACTIN TROPIC HORMONES POSTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND ANTIDIURETIC HORMONE OXYTOCIN THYROID GLAND THYROID FOLLICLE WHAT THYROID HORMONES (T3 AND T4) DO THE WHAT-IFS OF THYROID HORMONE IMBALANCE REGULATION OF SECRETION THE NEED FOR IODINE SYNTHESIS OF THYROID HORMONE IODINE DEFICIENCY CALCITONIN PARATHYROID GLANDS PARATHYROID HORMONE DEFICIENCY AND HYPOCALCEMIC TETANY ADRENAL GLANDS ADRENAL MEDULLA ADRENAL CORTEX Control of Cortisol Secretion MINERALOCORTICOIDS SEX HORMONES NEGATIVE FEEDBACK…AGAIN PANCREAS INSULIN SECRETION AND EFFECTS THE WHAT-IFS OF INSULIN DEFICIENCY GLUCAGON GONADS THYMUS GLAND PINEAL GLAND OTHER HORMONES ORGAN-SPECIFIC HORMONES PROSTAGLANDINS ADIPOSE TISSUE HORMONES THE WHAT-IFS OF EXCESS ABDOMINAL FAT 15 - Blood WHAT BLOOD DOES COMPOSITION OF BLOOD CHARACTERISTICS BLOOD HAS TWO PARTS ORIGIN OF BLOOD CELLS HEMOPOIESIS AND RED BONE MARROW BONE MARROW WOES: TOO LITTLE, TOO MUCH BONE MARROW DEPRESSION BONE MARROW OVERACTIVITY BLOOD CELLS RED BLOOD CELLS SHAPE AND CONTENTS HEMOGLOBIN WHY BLOOD CHANGES ITS COLOR WHAT IS ESSENTIAL FOR HEMOGLOBIN PRODUCTION? REGULATION OF RED BLOOD CELL PRODUCTION REMOVAL AND BREAKDOWN OF RED BLOOD CELLS RECYCLE! WHITE BLOOD CELLS TYPES OF WHITE BLOOD CELLS GRANULOCYTES AGRANULOCYTES GOOD NEWS, BAD NEWS PLATELETS BLOOD COUNTS DIFFERENTIAL COUNT BLOOD VESSEL SPASM FORMATION OF A PLATELET PLUG BLOOD COAGULATION FORMATION OF THE BLOOD CLOT CLOT BUSTING: FIBRINOLYSIS PREVENTION OF EXCESSIVE CLOT FORMATION Natural Mechanisms Use of Medications That Prevent Excessive Clot Formations BLOOD TYPES ANTIGENS AND BLOOD TYPES ANTIBODIES AND BLOOD TYPE ANTIGEN–ANTIBODY INTERACTION COMPATIBILITY AND INCOMPATIBILITY OF BLOOD TYPES RH CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM 16 - Anatomy of the Heart FUNCTION, LOCATION, AND SIZE OF THE HEART LAYERS AND COVERING OF THE HEART ENDOCARDIUM MYOCARDIUM EPICARDIUM PERICARDIUM The What-Ifs of the Pericardial Membranes RIGHT ATRIUM RIGHT VENTRICLE LEFT ATRIUM LEFT VENTRICLE GREAT VESSELS OF THE HEART HEART VALVES ATRIOVENTRICULAR VALVES SEMILUNAR VALVES PULMONIC VALVE AORTIC VALVE The What-Ifs of Malfunctioning Valves? HEART SOUNDS BLOOD SUPPLY TO THE MYOCARDIUM The What-Ifs of Poor Coronary Artery Blood Flow CARDIAC ENZYMES AND LEAKY CELLS CARDIAC CONDUCTION SYSTEM PARTS OF THE CARDIAC CONDUCTION SYSTEM SINOATRIAL NODE ATRIAL CONDUCTING FIBERS ATRIOVENTRICULAR NODE HIS-PURKINJE SYSTEM AUTOMATICITY AND RHYTHMICITY NORMAL, SLOW, AND SLOWER The What-Ifs of Electrical Malfunction ELECTROCARDIOGRAM 17 - Function of the Heart AUTONOMIC CONTROL OF THE HEART WHY THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM? AUTONOMIC WIRING AUTONOMIC FIRING Sympathetic Stimulation Parasympathetic (Vagus Nerve) Stimulation CARDIAC OUTPUT AND VENOUS RETURN Heart Rate Stroke Volume How to Change Stroke Volume Starling’s law of the heart. The relationship of myocardial stretch to myocardial contractile force is referred to as Starling’s... Inotropic effect. A second way to increase stroke volume is by strengthening the force of myocardial contraction without stretch... CHANGING CARDIAC OUTPUT THE COORDINATED AND ADAPTABLE PUMP HEART TALK HEART TALK: CLINICAL TERMS END-DIASTOLIC VOLUME PRELOAD EJECTION FRACTION AFTERLOAD INOTROPIC EFFECT CHRONOTROPIC EFFECT DROMOTROPIC EFFECT HEART TALK: RECEPTOR LANGUAGE BETA1-ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR ACTIVATION BETA1-ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR BLOCKADE MUSCARINIC (CHOLINERGIC) RECEPTOR ACTIVATION MUSCARINIC (CHOLINERGIC) RECEPTOR BLOCKADE LEFT HEART FAILURE BACKWARD FAILURE FORWARD FAILURE RIGHT HEART FAILURE 18 - Anatomy of the Blood Vessels and Special Circulations CIRCLES, CIRCUITS, AND CIRCULATIONS BLOOD VESSELS NAMING THE BLOOD VESSELS ARTERIES CAPILLARIES VEINS BLOOD VESSEL WALLS: THE LAYERED LOOK BLOOD VESSELS: WHAT THEY DO ARTERIES ARTERIOLES CAPILLARIES VEINS AND VENULES AORTA BRANCHES OF THE AORTA BRANCHES OF THE ASCENDING AORTA BRANCHES OF THE AORTIC ARCH BRANCHES OF THE DESCENDING AORTA (THORACIC AORTA) BRANCHES OF THE DESCENDING AORTA (ABDOMINAL AORTA) VENAE CAVAE VEINS THAT EMPTY INTO THE SUPERIOR VENA CAVA VEINS THAT EMPTY INTO THE INFERIOR VENA CAVA SPECIAL CIRCULATIONS BLOOD SUPPLY TO THE HEAD AND BRAIN ARTERIES OF THE HEAD AND NECK VENOUS DRAINAGE OF THE HEAD AND BRAIN BLOOD SUPPLY TO THE LIVER AND THE HEPATIC PORTAL CIRCULATION HEPATIC BLOOD VESSELS FETAL CIRCULATION PULSE WHAT IS A PULSE? WHAT CAN YOU LEARN ABOUT A PATIENT BY FEELING THE PULSE? 19 - Functions of the Blood Vessels BLOOD VESSELS DELIVER BLOOD VESSELS REGULATE BLOOD PRESSURE BLOOD PRESSURE: NORMAL AND ABNORMAL BLOOD PRESSURE IN DIFFERENT BLOOD VESSELS WHAT DETERMINES BLOOD PRESSURE? HEART AND BLOOD PRESSURE BLOOD VESSELS AND BLOOD PRESSURE HOW BLOOD PRESSURE STAYS WITHIN NORMAL LIMITS RAPIDLY ACTING MECHANISMS The What-Ifs of Blood Pressure Changes and the Baroreceptor Responses SLOWER-ACTING MECHANISMS AND LONG-TERM REGULATION OF BLOOD PRESSURE WHAT IS AN EXCHANGE VESSEL? WHY CAPILLARIES ARE GOOD EXCHANGE VESSELS THIN CAPILLARY WALLS MILLIONS OF CAPILLARIES SLOW VELOCITY OF BLOOD FLOW CAPILLARY FORCES: EXCHANGE EXCHANGE INVOLVING DIFFUSION EXCHANGE INVOLVING FILTRATION-OSMOSIS The What-Ifs of Impaired Fluid Exchange: The Mechanisms of Edema Formation BLOOD VESSELS DISTRIBUTE BLOOD 20 - Lymphatic System LYMPH AND LYMPHATIC CIRCULATION LYMPH: WHAT IT IS AND WHERE IT COMES FROM LYMPHATIC VESSELS WHAT CAUSES LYMPH TO MOVE? LYMPHATIC TISSUE LYMPHATIC ORGANS LYMPH NODES THYMUS GLAND SPLEEN LYMPHATIC NODULES TONSILS MUCOSA-ASSOCIATED LYMPHATIC TISSUE PEYER PATCHES APPENDIX 21 - Immune System CLASSIFICATION OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM NONSPECIFIC IMMUNITY FIRST LINE OF DEFENSE SECOND LINE OF DEFENSE Phagocytosis Asking directions: How phagocytes “find” the site of infection. As they travel through the blood to the site of infection, the n... Inflammation Fever Protective Proteins Natural Killer Cells SPECIFIC IMMUNITY: THIRD LINE OF DEFENSE ANTIGENS SELF AND NONSELF: IS THAT ME? LYMPHOCYTES Why the Names “T” and “B” Cells? T-Cell Activation and Cell-Mediated Immunity Another name for the helper T cell. The helper T cell is also called the CD4+ T cell (because of a surface protein called CD4). ... ANTIBODIES What Antibodies Are What Antibodies Do Remember Me? Primary and Secondary Responses TYPES OF IMMUNITY GENETIC IMMUNITY ACQUIRED IMMUNITY NATURALLY ACQUIRED IMMUNITY ARTIFICIALLY ACQUIRED IMMUNITY THE WHAT-IFS OF ALTERED IMMUNE RESPONSES 22 - Respiratory System STRUCTURE: ORGANS OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM UPPER AND LOWER RESPIRATORY TRACTS NOSE AND NASAL CAVITIES THE WHAT-IFS OF THE NOSE PHARYNX LARYNX WHERE AND WHAT IS YOUR VOICE BOX? VOCAL CORDS TRUE OR FALSE DOWN THE WRONG WAY TRACHEA WHERE IT SITS AND WHERE IT SPLITS KEEPING IT OPEN BRONCHIAL TREE: BRONCHI, BRONCHIOLES, AND ALVEOLI BRONCHI BRONCHIOLES ALVEOLI LUNGS RIGHT AND LEFT PLEURAL MEMBRANES PLEURAE INTRAPLEURAL SPACE COLLAPSED AND EXPANDED LUNGS WHY LUNGS COLLAPSE ELASTIC RECOIL SURFACE TENSION WHY LUNGS EXPAND SAYING IT ANOTHER WAY: COMPLIANCE THE WHAT-IFS OF LUNG COMPLIANCE RESPIRATORY FUNCTION THREE STEPS IN RESPIRATION STEP 1: VENTILATION, OR BREATHING What It Is Boyle’s Law: Pressure and Volume Boyle’s Law and Ventilation The Muscles of Respiration Nerves That Supply the Respiratory Muscles The What-Ifs of Impaired Respiratory Nerve-Muscle Function STEP 2: EXCHANGE OF OXYGEN AND CARBON DIOXIDE Why the Lungs Are Good Gas Exchangers Partial Pressures and the Diffusion of Gases What causes the respiratory gases to diffuse? Chapter 3describes how molecules diffuse from an area of higher concentration to a... Partial pressures within the lungs. Fig. 22.10 illustrates the diffusion of the respiratory gases at two sites: the lungs and th... Partial pressure at the cells. What happens to the gases at the tissues, or body cells? Two events occur. First, oxygen leaves t... STEP 3: TRANSPORT OF OXYGEN AND CARBON DIOXIDE Oxygen Transport Carbon Dioxide Transport AMOUNTS OF AIR LUNG VOLUMES LUNG CAPACITIES DEAD SPACE CONTROL OF BREATHING NEURAL CONTROL OF BREATHING CHEMICAL CONTROL OF BREATHING The What-Ifs of PCO2 Dysregulation 23 - Digestive System OVERVIEW OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION LAYERS AND MEMBRANES OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACT MUCOSA SUBMUCOSA MUSCLE LAYER SEROSA INNERVATION OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACT STRUCTURES AND ORGANS MOUTH TEETH TONGUE SALIVARY GLANDS THE WHAT-IFS OF SALIVA OTHER STRUCTURES WITHIN THE MOUTH PHARYNX ESOPHAGUS STOMACH WHAT IT DOES REGIONS OF THE STOMACH MUSCLES OF THE STOMACH GLANDS OF THE STOMACH VOMITING SMALL INTESTINE LOCATION AND PARTS SEGMENTS OF THE SMALL INTESTINE THE WALL OF THE SMALL INTESTINE AND ABSORPTION Peristalsis and Absorption in the Small Intestine LARGE INTESTINE SEGMENTS OF THE LARGE INTESTINE FUNCTIONS OF THE LARGE INTESTINE Peristalsis and Absorption Inside the gut: microbiota. Inside the gut and throughout the much-maligned waste there is a lot going on. Your gut microbiota (... Intestinal Gas ACCESSORY DIGESTIVE ORGANS LIVER WHAT THE LIVER DOES BLOOD SUPPLY TO THE LIVER Blood Supply and the Hepatic Portal System LIVER LOBULES THE WHAT-IFS OF IMPAIRED HEPATIC FUNCTION BILE BILIARY TREE GALLBLADDER THE WHAT-IFS OF IMPAIRED BILE FLOW PANCREAS DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION CARBOHYDRATES AND CARBOHYDRATE-SPLITTING ENZYMES PROTEINS AND PROTEIN-SPLITTING ENZYMES FATS, BILE, AND FAT-SPLITTING ENZYMES NUTRITION: CONCEPTS TO KNOW CARBOHYDRATES PROTEINS FATS (LIPIDS) VITAMINS THE WHAT-IFS OF VITAMIN DEFICIENCIES AND OVERDOSING MINERALS THE WHAT-IFS OF MINERAL DEFICIENCIES HEALTH AND A BALANCED DIET A BALANCED DIET POORLY BALANCED DIET AND DISEASE APPETITE CONTROL AND THE COUCH POTATO 24 - Urinary System EXCRETION ORGANS OF EXCRETION URINARY SYSTEM ORGANS URINARY SYSTEM TERMS KIDNEYS LOCATION STRUCTURE BLOOD SUPPLY NERVE SUPPLY FUNCTIONS OF THE KIDNEYS URINE MAKING: THE NEPHRON UNIT STRUCTURES RENAL TUBULES RENAL BLOOD VESSELS (VASCULAR STRUCTURES) URINE FORMATION GLOMERULAR FILTRATION Why Filtration Occurs What Substances Are Filtered The What-Ifs of Impaired Glomerular Filtration Rate TUBULAR REABSORPTION TUBULAR SECRETION ALDOSTERONE ANTIDIURETIC HORMONE THE WHAT-IFS OF IMPAIRED SECRETION OF ALDOSTERONE AND ANTIDIURETIC HORMONE NATRIURETIC PEPTIDES PARATHYROID HORMONE AND CALCITONIN COMPOSITION OF URINE UREMIA AND DIALYSIS YOUR PLUMBING URETERS URINARY BLADDER URINATION THE WHAT-IFS OF BLADDER FUNCTION URETHRA AN AUTONOMIC MOMENT 25 - Water, Electrolyte, and Acid–Base Balance BODY FLUIDS: DISTRIBUTION AND COMPOSITION FLUID COMPARTMENTS COMPOSITION OF BODY FLUIDS WATER BALANCE WATER INTAKE WATER OUTPUT THE WHAT-IFS OF WATER IMBALANCE WHY DOES FLUID SHIFT? FLUID SPACING—TERMINOLOGY DAILY WEIGHTS AND FLUID BALANCE ELECTROLYTE BALANCE QUICK REFERENCE: ELECTROLYTES MOST IMPORTANT IONS SODIUM (NA+) The What-Ifs of Sodium Imbalance POTASSIUM (K+) The What-Ifs of K+ Imbalance CALCIUM (CA2+) MAGNESIUM (MG2+) CHLORIDE (CL−) BICARBONATE (HCO3−) OTHER IONS ACID–BASE BALANCE QUICK REFERENCE: ACIDS AND BASES WHERE THE ACID COMES FROM HOW THE BODY REGULATES PH BUFFERS LUNGS RESPIRATORY ACTIVITY AS THE CAUSE OF CHANGES IN PH RESPIRATORY ACTIVITY AS THE CORRECTION FOR CHANGES IN PH KIDNEYS ACIDOSIS ALKALOSIS 26 - Reproductive Systems MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM TESTES LOCATION, LOCATION, LOCATION LOBULES SPERM CELLS Spermatogenesis GENITAL DUCTS EPIDIDYMIS VAS DEFERENS AND EJACULATORY DUCTS URETHRA ACCESSORY GLANDS SEMINAL VESICLES PROSTATE GLAND BULBOURETHRAL GLANDS SEMEN EXTERNAL GENITALS MALE SEXUAL RESPONSE: ERECTION, EMISSION, EJACULATION, AND ORGASM MALE SEX HORMONES EFFECTS OF TESTOSTERONE HORMONAL CONTROL OF MALE REPRODUCTION FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM OVARIES EGG DEVELOPMENT: THE OVARIAN FOLLICLE OVULATION OVARIAN HORMONES Estrogen Progesterone GENITAL TRACT FALLOPIAN TUBES The What-Ifs of Tube Trouble UTERUS VAGINA EXTERNAL GENITALS FEMALE SEXUAL RESPONSE HORMONAL CONTROL OF THE REPRODUCTIVE CYCLES TWO REPRODUCTIVE CYCLES OVARIAN CYCLE Follicular Phase Luteal Phase UTERINE CYCLE Menstrual Phase Proliferative Phase Secretory Phase IMPLANTATION: KEEPING THE CORPUS LUTEUM ALIVE MENARCHE, MENSES, AND MENOPAUSE THE FEMALE BREAST AND LACTATION STRUCTURE OF A BREAST: THE MAMMARY GLANDS HORMONES OF LACTATION… GOT MILK? METHODS OF BIRTH CONTROL 27 - Human Development and Heredity FERTILIZATION WHEN FERTILIZATION OCCURS WHERE FERTILIZATION OCCURS HOW FERTILIZATION OCCURS HUMAN DEVELOPMENT PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT EARLY EMBRYONIC PERIOD FROM ZYGOTE TO BLASTOCYST… OR FROM ZYGOTE TO EGGPLANT SEEING DOUBLE: TWINS EMBRYONIC PERIOD EXTRAEMBRYONIC MEMBRANES PLACENTA Formation of the Placenta Functions of the Placenta HOOK UP: THE UMBILICAL CORD ORGANOGENESIS BE CAREFUL: TERATOGENS The What-Ifs of Commonly Encountered Teratogens FETAL PERIOD BIRTH IMMEDIATE ADJUSTMENTS DEVELOPMENT AS A LIFELONG PROCESS HEREDITY DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID, GENES, AND CHROMOSOMES GENETIC ART: THE KARYOTYPE DOMINANT, RECESSIVE, AND CODOMINANT GENES TOO MANY OR TOO FEW CHROMOSOMES GENETIC EXPRESSION GENETIC MUTATIONS XS AND YS SEX DETERMINATION: A MALE THING SEX-LINKED TRAITS CONGENITAL AND HEREDITARY DISEASE ANSWERS TO REVIEW YOUR KNOWLEDGE MATCHING: DIRECTIONS OF THE BODY MATCHING: REGIONAL TERMS MULTIPLE CHOICE GO FIGURE CHAPTER 2: BASIC CHEMISTRY MATCHING: ATOMS AND ELEMENTS MATCHING: STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM MATCHING: IONS AND ELECTROLYTES MATCHING: ACIDS AND BASES MULTIPLE CHOICE GO FIGURE CHAPTER 3: CELLS MATCHING: CELL STRUCTURE MATCHING: TRANSPORT AND TONICITY MULTIPLE CHOICE GO FIGURE CHAPTER 4: CELL METABOLISM MATCHING: CARBOHYDRATES, PROTEINS, AND FATS MATCHING: BIOCHEMISTRY TERMS MATCHING: GENETIC CODE AND PROTEIN SYNTHESIS MULTIPLE CHOICE GO FIGURE CHAPTER 5: MICROBIOLOGY BASICS MATCHING: MICROORGANISMS AND OTHER PATHOGENS MULTIPLE CHOICE GO FIGURE CHAPTER 6: TISSUES AND MEMBRANES MATCHING: TISSUES MATCHING: MEMBRANES MULTIPLE CHOICE GO FIGURE CHAPTER 7: INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM AND BODY TEMPERATURE MATCHING: SKIN MATCHING: GLANDS MATCHING: COLORS MULTIPLE CHOICE GO FIGURE GO FIGURE CHAPTER 8: SKELETAL SYSTEM MATCHING: LONG BONE MATCHING: NAMES OF BONES MATCHING: JOINTS AND JOINT MOVEMENT MULTIPLE CHOICE GO FIGURE CHAPTER 9: MUSCULAR SYSTEM MATCHING: MUSCLE TERMS MATCHING: NAMES OF MUSCLES MULTIPLE CHOICE GO FIGURE CHAPTER 10: NERVOUS SYSTEM: NERVOUS TISSUE AND BRAIN MATCHING: NERVE CELLS MATCHING: BRAIN MULTIPLE CHOICE GO FIGURE CHAPTER 11: NERVOUS SYSTEM: SPINAL CORD AND PERIPHERAL NERVES MATCHING: REFLEXES MATCHING: NERVES MULTIPLE CHOICE MULTIPLE CHOICE GO FIGURE CHAPTER 12: AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM MATCHING: SYMPATHETIC OR PARASYMPATHETIC MATCHING: NOREPINEPHRINE OR ACETYLCHOLINE MULTIPLE CHOICE MULTIPLE CHOICE GO FIGURE CHAPTER 13: SENSORY SYSTEM MATCHING: SENSES MATCHING: STRUCTURES OF THE EYE MATCHING: STRUCTURES OF THE EAR MULTIPLE CHOICE MULTIPLE CHOICE GO FIGURE CHAPTER 14: ENDOCRINE SYSTEM MATCHING: GLANDS MATCHING: HORMONES MULTIPLE CHOICE GO FIGURE CHAPTER 15: BLOOD MATCHING: BLOOD CELLS MATCHING: BLOOD CLOTS MATCHING: BLOOD TYPES MULTIPLE CHOICE GO FIGURE CHAPTER 16: ANATOMY OF THE HEART MATCHING: STRUCTURES OF THE HEART MATCHING: VALVES MULTIPLE CHOICE GO FIGURE CHAPTER 17: FUNCTION OF THE HEART MATCHING: CARDIAC FUNCTION TERMS MATCHING: LOADS AND EFFECTS MULTIPLE CHOICE GO FIGURE CHAPTER 18: ANATOMY OF THE BLOOD VESSELS AND SPECIAL CIRCULATIONS MATCHING: BLOOD VESSELS: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION MATCHING: NAMES OF BLOOD VESSELS MATCHING: FETAL CIRCULATION MULTIPLE CHOICE GO FIGURE CHAPTER 19: FUNCTIONS OF THE BLOOD VESSELS MATCHING: BLOOD PRESSURE TERMS MATCHING: BLOOD PRESSURE READINGS MATCHING: CHANGES IN BLOOD PRESSURE MULTIPLE CHOICE GO FIGURE CHAPTER 20: LYMPHATIC SYSTEM MATCHING: LYMPH TERMS MULTIPLE CHOICE GO FIGURE CHAPTER 21: IMMUNE SYSTEM MATCHING: NONSPECIFIC IMMUNITY MATCHING: SPECIFIC IMMUNITY MATCHING: ACTIVE AND PASSIVE IMMUNITY MULTIPLE CHOICE GO FIGURE CHAPTER 22: RESPIRATORY SYSTEM MATCHING: STRUCTURES OF THE RESPIRATORY TRACT MATCHING: THORACIC CAVITY AND VENTILATION MULTIPLE CHOICE GO FIGURE CHAPTER 23: DIGESTIVE SYSTEM MATCHING: STRUCTURES: MAKING THE CONNECTIONS MATCHING: ENZYMES, HORMONES, AND DIGESTIVE AIDS MULTIPLE CHOICE GO FIGURE CHAPTER 24: URINARY SYSTEM MATCHING: PLUMBING MATCHING: NEPHRON UNIT MATCHING: HORMONES AND ENZYMES MULTIPLE CHOICE GO FIGURE GO FIGURE CHAPTER 25: WATER, ELECTROLYTE, AND ACID–BASE BALANCE MATCHING: WATER COMPARTMENTS MATCHING: IONS MULTIPLE CHOICE GO FIGURE GO FIGURE CHAPTER 26: REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS MATCHING: FEMALE STRUCTURES MATCHING: MALE STRUCTURES MATCHING: HORMONES MULTIPLE CHOICE GO FIGURE GO FIGURE CHAPTER 27: HUMAN DEVELOPMENT AND HEREDITY MATCHING: FERTILIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT MATCHING: HORMONES MATCHING: HEREDITY MULTIPLE CHOICE GO FIGURE GO FIGURE Index A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z