Emerging Modalities in Mitigation of Antimicrobial Resistance

Description

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is one of the deadliest threats to global public health. This book focuses on dynamics in the landscape of AMR while informing about the latest technologies and strategies to mitigate it. The menace of AMR in different niches, routes of penetration across various domains, socio-economic impact, and the need for a 'One Health' approach in mitigating AMR has been emphasized. Factors involved in AMR, underlying mechanisms, and pharmacometrics in developing antimicrobials are highlighted. Emphasis is given to emerging technologies that are sustainable, scalable, and applicable to the global community, such as big data analytics, bioactive agents, phage therapy, and nanotechnology. The book also explores current and alternative treatment strategies to combat AMR, emphasizing the use of nanoparticles to target pathogens and as a viable alternative to antibiotics. About This Book Contents About the Editors Part I: Current Status and Active Dynamics of AMR Chapter 1: Antimicrobials in Livestock Production and Its Cross-Domain Dynamics 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Antimicrobial Use in Livestock 1.2.1 History 1.2.2 Numbers Behind Antimicrobial Use in Livestock 1.3 Why Are Antimicrobials Used in Livestock? 1.3.1 Antimicrobials as a Growth Promoter 1.3.2 Prophylactic Use of Antimicrobials in Livestock 1.3.3 Therapeutic Use of Antimicrobials in Livestock 1.4 Antimicrobial Resistance 1.5 How Antimicrobials and Antimicrobial Resistance Flow Between Humans, Livestock, and the Environment? 1.5.1 Agricultural Production Method 1.5.2 Livestock Waste 1.5.3 Exposure to Other Animals and Insects 1.5.4 Movement of Animals and Food 1.5.5 Environment 1.6 Zoonosis of Antimicrobial Resistance 1.7 One Health and Antimicrobial Resistance 1.8 Third-Generation Cephalosporins: A One Health Example 1.8.1 Antimicrobial Stewardship 1.9 Alternatives to Antimicrobial Use in Livestock 1.10 Conclusion References Chapter 2: Antibiotics and Resistance in Environment 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Treatment Systems and Antibiotics in the Environment 2.3 Impacts of Antibiotics on Environment 2.4 Antibiotic Resistance in Environment 2.4.1 Resistance Genes in the Environment 2.4.2 Transmission Vectors 2.4.2.1 Air and Surface Water 2.4.2.2 Animal Vectors 2.5 Cytotoxic Effects of Antibiotics in the Environment 2.5.1 Toxic Effects of Antibiotic Pollution on Microbial Communities 2.5.2 Toxic Effects of Antibiotic Pollution on Higher Organisms 2.5.2.1 Physiological Effects 2.5.2.2 Effect on Host Microbiome 2.6 Gaps in Current Policies to Tackle Antibiotic Pollution 2.7 Conclusion References Chapter 3: Antimicrobial Agents in Agriculture and Their Implications in Antimicrobial Resistance 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Antibiotics in Agriculture 3.2.1 Antibiotics 3.2.1.1 On the Basis of Chemical or Molecular Structures 3.2.1.1.1 β-Lactams 3.2.1.1.2 Tetracyclines 3.2.1.1.3 Quinolones 3.2.1.1.4 Aminoglycosides 3.2.1.1.5 Sulfonamides 3.2.1.1.6 Glycopeptides 3.2.1.1.7 Oxazolidinones 3.2.1.1.8 Macrolides 3.2.1.2 On the Basis of Mode of Action 3.2.1.2.1 Antibiotics Inhibits the Synthesis of Bacterial Cell Wall 3.2.1.2.2 Antibiotics Disrupts the Function or Structure of Cell Membrane 3.2.1.2.3 Antibiotics Inhibits the Synthesis of Nucleic Acid 3.2.1.2.4 Antibiotics Inhibiting the Protein Synthesis 3.2.1.2.5 Antibiotics Blocking the Key Metabolic Pathway 3.2.2 Crop Protection 3.2.3 Animal Husbandry 3.2.4 Aquaculture 3.3 Routes of transmission of Antimicrobial-Resistant Bacteria in the Environment 3.4 Consequences of Antibiotic Use in Agriculture 3.4.1 Consequences of Antimicrobial Resistance in Crop Disease 3.4.2 Medical Consequences of Antibiotic Use in Agriculture 3.4.2.1 Escherichia coli 3.4.2.2 Salmonella spp. 3.4.2.3 Vibrio spp. 3.4.2.4 Shigella spp. 3.4.2.5 Campylobacter spp. 3.4.2.6 Helicobacter spp. 3.4.2.7 Urinary Tract Infection Causing Pathogens 3.5 Mechanisms of Antibiotic Resistance 3.5.1 Transfer of Antibiotic Resistance in Clinical Isolates via Agricultural Sources 3.5.1.1 Horizontal Gene Transfer 3.5.1.1.1 Conjugation 3.5.1.1.2 Transformation 3.5.1.1.3 Transduction 3.5.1.2 Vertical Gene Transfer 3.6 Antimicrobial Resistance and Health Risks to Humans 3.7 Antibiotic Stewardship and Public Awareness to Mitigate the Health Risks to Humans 3.8 Alternatives to Antimicrobial Agents in Agriculture 3.9 Regulatory Agencies and Their Role in Regulating Antibiotic Use and Global Partnerships in Antimicrobial Resistance 3.10 Conclusions References Chapter 4: Modern Diagnostic Tools for Rapid Detection of Multidrug Resistance 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Origin and Transmission of Multidrug Resistance 4.3 Methods for Detection of Multidrug Resistance 4.3.1 Microscopy 4.3.2 Molecular Approaches 4.3.2.1 PCR-Based Approach 4.3.2.2 RNA-Based Approach 4.3.2.3 Isothermal Amplification 4.3.2.4 DNA Microarrays 4.3.3 Flow Cytometry 4.3.4 MALDI-TOF Mass Spectrometry 4.3.5 Biosensors 4.3.6 Immunodiagnostics 4.3.7 Chemiluminescence and Bioluminescence 4.3.8 Colorimetric Methods 4.4 Conclusions and Future Outlook References Chapter 5: The Use of Antimicrobials in Agriculture and Socioeconomic Considerations in Global Perspective 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Antimicrobials in Agriculture 5.2.1 AMR due to Manure 5.2.2 Fate of Antimicrobials in Agriculture 5.3 Antimicrobials as Growth Promoters 5.4 Clinical Implications 5.5 High-Throughput Methods in the Study of AMR in Agriculture 5.6 Agriculture, AMR, and Socioeconomic Aspects 5.7 Conclusions References Chapter 6: Epidemiology of Microbial Infections 6.1 Introduction 6.1.1 Chain of Infection 6.1.1.1 Etiologic Agent 6.1.1.2 Transmission Methods 6.1.1.2.1 Contact Transmission 6.1.1.2.2 Common Vehicle Transmission 6.1.1.2.3 Airborne Transmission 6.1.1.2.4 Vector-Borne Transmission 6.1.1.3 Host 6.2 Mechanism of Microbial Infection 6.2.1 Mechanism of Bacterial Infection 6.2.1.1 A Bacterial Pathogen After Encountering A Human Host Initiates Several Mechanisms To Evade the Host defenses: 6.2.1.2 Invasion 6.2.2 Mechanism of Viral Infection 6.3 Types of Microbial Infection and Its Reservoirs 6.3.1 Bacterial Classification 6.3.2 Viral Classification 6.3.3 Parasitic Classification 6.3.4 Fungal Classification 6.4 Epidemiology of Microbial Infections 6.4.1 Types of Epidemiological Study 6.5 Prevalence and Temporal Patterns of Microbial Infections 6.6 Prevention and Cure of Microbial Infections 6.6.1 Prevention and Cure of Bacterial Infections 6.6.2 Prevention and Cure of Viral Infections 6.7 Conclusions References Chapter 7: Socioeconomic Impact of Antimicrobial Resistance and Their Integrated Mitigation by One Health Approach 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Antimicrobial Agent 7.3 Antimicrobial Resistance 7.4 Mechanism of Resistance 7.5 Human Practice Accelerating Rate of AMR 7.6 Socioeconomic Impact 7.6.1 Economic Impact 7.6.1.1 Patient Perspectives 7.6.1.2 Physician Perspectives 7.6.1.3 Drug Industry Perspectives 7.6.1.4 Health-Care Perspectives 7.6.2 Social Impact 7.7 Importance of One Health Approach 7.8 AMR Surveillance: Role of One Health Framework 7.9 Ten Ways to Tackle AMR 7.10 Strategies of One Health in Mitigation of AMR 7.11 Conclusions References Part II: Mode of Action of Antimicrobials in Mitigation of AMR Chapter 8: Regulations in Antimicrobial Drug Development: Challenges and New Incentives 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Drug Development Pipeline 8.3 Clinical Trials 8.4 Challenges in Antimicrobial Drug Development 8.5 Harmonization of Regulatory Policies: A Collaborative Effort 8.6 New Incentives in Regulations and Policies 8.7 Conclusions References Chapter 9: New Insights into and Updates on Antimicrobial Agents 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Antimicrobial Agents from Natural Origin 9.3 Plant-Derived Antimicrobial Agents 9.4 Bacterial Origin Antimicrobial Agents 9.5 Fungal-Derived Antimicrobial Agents 9.6 Animal Origin Antimicrobial Agents 9.7 Mechanism of Antimicrobials 9.8 Current Antimicrobial Therapy and Drug Resistant 9.9 Future Opportunities References Chapter 10: Polyphenols as Emerging Antimicrobial Agents 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Type of Flavonoids and Their Antimicrobial Activity 10.2.1 Flavonols and Their Antimicrobial Activity 10.2.2 Flavones and Isoflavone and Their Antimicrobial Activity 10.2.3 Flavanones and Their Antimicrobial Activity 10.2.4 Flavan-3-ols as Antimicrobial Agent 10.3 Tannins and Its Antimicrobial Activity 10.3.1 Proanthocyanidins 10.3.2 Hydrolyzable Tannins 10.4 Non-flavonoid Polyphenols and Their Antimicrobial Activity 10.5 Synergistic Antimicrobial Activities of Polyphenols and Antibiotics 10.6 Conclusions References Chapter 11: Antimicrobial Peptides and Small Molecules as Antibiotics Substitute 11.1 Introduction 11.2 AMPs from Diverse Natural Origin 11.2.1 AMPs Isolated from Insects 11.2.2 AMPs Isolated from Invertebrates 11.2.3 AMPs Isolated from Vertebrates 11.3 AMPs of Synthetic Origin 11.4 Classification of AMPs 11.4.1 α-Helical AMPs 11.4.2 Cysteine-Rich AMPs 11.4.3 β-Sheet AMPs 11.4.4 AMPs Rich in Regular Amino Acids 11.4.5 AMPs with Rare Modified Amino Acids 11.5 Structure of AMPs 11.6 Mechanism of Action for Antimicrobial Peptides 11.6.1 Most Validated Mechanisms of Action for AMPs 11.6.2 Other Reported Mechanisms for Antimicrobial Peptides 11.7 Multi-functional Roles of AMPs 11.7.1 Wound Repair 11.7.2 Skin Infections 11.7.3 Antiviral Activity 11.7.4 Antitumoral Activity 11.7.5 AMPs Against Sexually Transmitted Infections 11.7.6 Anti-malarial Activity 11.7.7 Spermicidal Agents 11.7.8 Buco-Dental Infections 11.7.9 Ocular Infections 11.7.10 Kostmann’s Syndrome 11.7.11 Food Preservatives 11.7.12 Miscellaneous Uses 11.8 AMPs as Targets for Therapy 11.9 Challenges Faced by Antimicrobial Peptides 11.10 AMPs and Analogues Under Clinical Trials and in Clinical Use 11.11 Other Small Molecule Alternatives to Conventional Antibiotics 11.11.1 Bacteriocins 11.11.2 Innate Defense Regulatory (IDR) Peptides 11.11.3 Synthetically Designed Strategies Synthetic Mimics of Antimicrobial Peptides (SMAMPs) 11.11.4 Antibacterial Oligonucleotides 11.11.5 Foldamers 11.11.6 Antibacterial Nucleic Acids 11.11.7 Immune Stimulation by P4 Peptide 11.12 Conclusions References Chapter 12: Molecular Mechanisms of Antimicrobial Resistance in Staphylococcus aureus Biofilms 12.1 Biofilms: Introduction 12.2 Staphylococcus aureus 12.3 S. aureus Stages of Biofilm Development 12.3.1 Attachment 12.3.2 Maturation/Proliferation 12.3.3 Dispersal 12.4 Impact of Quorum Sensing on S. aureus Gene Expression and Biofilm Formation 12.5 Biofilm Resistance, Tolerance, and Persistence 12.6 Conclusions Bibliography Chapter 13: Antimicrobial Resistance: Meaning and Developing Realization 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Overview of Current Antimicrobial Resistance 13.3 Status of Antimicrobial Drug Discovery and Development, and Evolution of Antimicrobial Resistance 13.4 The Drug Discovery Pipeline and the Future 13.5 Drug-Resistant Microbes 13.6 Global Approaches for Control of Drug Resistance 13.7 The Indian Scenario in Brief 13.8 Conclusion References Chapter 14: Chemical Diversity in Fungi: Strategies to Mitigate Antimicrobial Resistance 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Strategies for Antimicrobial Resistance Management 14.3 Fungi as a Goldmine of Novel Chemistries for Curbing Antimicrobial Resistance 14.4 Strategies Adopted to Explore the Chemical Diversity of Fungi 14.4.1 Genome Mining 14.5 Genome Mining as Tool of Novel Chemistries 14.6 Some Important Compound Analyzed and Identified Using Genome Mining Tools 14.6.1 Lasso Peptides 14.6.2 Bacteriocin 14.6.3 Cyanobactins 14.6.4 Methanobactins 14.6.5 Polyketide 14.7 Genome Mining in Biosynthetic Gene Cluster-Based Families to Map the Pathway 14.8 Conclusions References Chapter 15: Phage Therapy as an Alternative Treatment in the Fight Against AMR: Real-World Problems and Possible Futures 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR): The Crisis 15.3 Phage Biology Basics 15.4 Discovery and Early History of Bacteriophages 15.5 Mechanism of Action of Bacteriophages 15.6 Benefits and Limitations of Phage Therapy 15.7 Phage Therapy against Bacterial Infections in Humans 15.8 Phage Therapy: Problems and Alternative Solutions 15.9 Future Challenges and Role of Bacteriophages 15.10 Emerging Approaches in Phage Therapy 15.11 Conclusions References Part III: Novel Strategies to Combat AMR Chapter 16: Omics and In Silico Approaches in the Surveillance and Monitoring of Antimicrobial Resistance 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Omics of Antimicrobial Resistance 16.3 Genomics in Antimicrobial Resistance 16.4 Transcriptomics in Antimicrobial Resistance 16.5 Proteomics in Antimicrobial Resistance 16.6 Metabolomics in Antimicrobial Resistance 16.7 Meta-omic Approaches in Antimicrobial Resistance 16.8 Bioinformatics in Antimicrobial Resistance 16.9 Comprehensive Antibiotic Resistance Database (CARD) 16.10 ResFinder 16.11 PointFinder 16.12 MEGARes 16.13 PRAP (Pan Resistome Analysis Pipeline) 16.14 Other Databases 16.15 Global Collaborations for the Surveillance of AMR 16.16 Conclusions References Chapter 17: Antimicrobial Activity of Bioactive Compounds (Thymoquinone and Eugenol) and Its Nanoformulation Therapeutic Potential 17.1 Introduction 17.1.1 Chemistry and Sources 17.1.1.1 Eugenol 17.1.1.2 Thymoquinone 17.1.1.3 Significance of Natural Products 17.2 Pharmacology 17.2.1 Eugenol 17.2.2 Thymoquinone 17.3 Nanoformulation of Active Compounds 17.3.1 Eugenol 17.3.2 Thymoquinone 17.4 Toxicity of Bioactive Constituents 17.5 Challenges for the Development of Herbal Nanoformulation 17.6 Conclusions References Chapter 18: Nanoparticles as a Future Alternative Against Multiple Drug Resistance 18.1 Introduction 18.2 Antibiotic Resistance Mechanisms 18.3 Nanoparticle Fabrication Approaches 18.3.1 Silver Nanoparticles (AgNPs) 18.3.2 Gold Nanoparticles (AuNPs) 18.4 Mechanism of Action of Nanoparticles in Bacterial Cell 18.4.1 Mechanism of Action of AgNPs 18.4.2 Mechanism of Action of AuNPs 18.5 Mechanism of Action of NPs on Biofilm Formation 18.6 Conclusions References Chapter 19: Nano-Cargo Boarded Defensins to Combat Multidrug Resistance 19.1 Introduction 19.2 Defensins 19.2.1 Classification of Defensins 19.2.1.1 α-Defensins 19.2.1.2 β-Defensins 19.2.1.3 θ-Defensins 19.3 Mechanism of Action of Defensins 19.4 Defensins as Therapeutic Candidates 19.4.1 In Vitro Synthesis of Defensins 19.4.1.1 Recombinant Synthesis 19.4.1.2 Chemical Synthesis 19.4.2 Limitations of Defensins as Therapeutic Candidates 19.4.3 Approaches to Overcome Limitations of Defensins 19.5 Nano-Cargos for Delivery of Antimicrobial Peptides 19.5.1 Inorganic/Metallic Nanoparticles 19.5.2 Polymeric Nanoparticles 19.6 Nano-Cargo Boarded Defensins in Combating Multidrug Resistance 19.7 Conclusions References Chapter 20: Implementation of Diverse Nano-cargos to Disguise and Fight Multidrug Resistance 20.1 Introduction to Nano-vehicles 20.1.1 Metallic Nanoparticle-Based Nano-cargos 20.1.2 Carbon-Based Nano-vehicles 20.1.3 Liposomes-Based Nano-assemblies 20.1.4 Liquid Crystalline Particle-Based Nano-carriers 20.1.5 Dendritic System Nano-assemblages 20.1.6 Polymer-Based Nano-matrices 20.1.7 Hydrogel-Based Nano-networks 20.1.8 Cyclodextrin-Based Nano-vesicles 20.1.9 Aptamer-Based Nano-templates 20.2 Limitations on the Use of Nano-carriers 20.3 Conclusions References Chapter 21: Silver Nanoparticles as Potent Multidrug-Resistant Incorporants in Biomedicine 21.1 Introduction 21.2 Silver Nanoparticles as an Alternative Therapeutic to Disguise Multidrug-Resistant Microbes 21.3 Impact of AgNPs in Biomedicine 21.4 Silver NPs as a Potent Antimicrobial Therapeutic Against Multidrug Resistance 21.5 Mechanistics of AgNPs on Multidrug-Resistant Bacteria in Biomedicine 21.6 Factors Influencing the Bactericidal Effect of AgNPs 21.6.1 Nanoparticle Species 21.6.2 Particle Appearance and Morphology 21.6.3 Concentration 21.6.4 Stabilizing Agents 21.7 Conclusions References Chapter 22: Role of Gold Nanoparticles Against Multidrug Resistance (MDR) Bacteria: An Emerging Therapeutic Revolution 22.1 Introduction 22.2 Antimicrobial Mechanism of Gold Nanoparticles 22.3 Combination/Conjugation Strategies of Gold Nanoparticles 22.4 Different Variants of Gold Nanostructures in Combating MDR 22.5 Antimicrobial Drug Resistance Mechanisms in Bacteria 22.6 Intracellular Uptake of Gold Nanostructures 22.6.1 Pharmacokinetic and Pharmacodynamic Characteristics of AuNPs 22.7 Novel Therapeutic Approach of Gold Nanostructures for Combating MDR: Phage Therapy, Combined Ablation Photothermal Therapy, Photodynamic Therapy 22.7.1 Phage Therapy 22.7.2 Combined Ablation Photothermal Therapy 22.7.3 Photodynamic Therapy 22.8 Future Perspectives and Conclusions References Chapter 23: Carbon Nanoparticles: A Potential Cost-Effective Approach to Counter Antimicrobial Resistance 23.1 Introduction 23.2 Antibacterial Activity of Carbon Nanoparticles 23.3 Antifungal Activity of Carbon Nanoparticles 23.4 Antiviral Activity of Carbon Nanoparticles 23.5 Synthesis of Carbon Nanoparticles and their Mechanism of Action 23.6 Conclusions References Chapter 24: Antimicrobial Interfaces as Augmentative Strategy Against Antimicrobial Resistance 24.1 Introduction 24.2 Antimicrobial Fabrics in Textiles 24.3 Imparting Antimicrobial Property by Chemical Treatments 24.4 Developing Antimicrobial Textiles Using Eco-Friendly Approach 24.5 Surface Modification of Textiles and Appliances with Antimicrobial Coating 24.6 Silver and Zinc Oxide Nanomaterials as Antimicrobial Agent for Natural and Synthetic Textiles 24.7 Quaternary Ammonium Compounds (QACs) as Antimicrobials 24.8 Natural Polymeric and Graphene Oxide Nanocomposites with Antimicrobial Activities 24.9 Antimicrobial Coatings on Medical Devices 24.10 Antimicrobial Photocatalytic Coating 24.11 Antimicrobial Durability and Cost Efficiency 24.12 Environmental Impacts of Antimicrobials 24.13 Conclusions References Chapter 25: Nanostrategies Against Rising Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR)-Metallic Nanoparticles as Nanoweapon 25.1 Introduction 25.2 Silver Nanoparticles 25.3 Copper Nanoparticles 25.4 Gold Nanoparticles 25.5 Conclusions References Index