Pandemics and Resilience: Lessons we should have learned from Zika

Description

The aim of the book was to produce the most comprehensive examination of a pandemic that has ever been attempted. By cataloging the full extent of the Zika pandemic, this book will be the most complete history and epistemic contextualization ever attempted to date. The work should function as the primary source for students, researchers, and scholars who need information about the Zika pandemic. This book examines the technical literature, digital and popular literature, and online materials to fully contextualize this event and provide a bona fide record of this event and its implications for the future. It is somewhat serendipitous that while this work was underway, we are going through another pandemic. One of the primary lessons we did not learn by Zika was pandemic events will return repeatedly, and we need to learn from each one of them to prepare the planet for the next one. Just because Zika seemed to have died out does not make it less important. We were lucky that the virus evolved into what seemed to be a less virulent version of itself, and the vector mosquitoes were concentrated elsewhere. Finally, this book represents a tour de force in scholarship involving nearly 4,000 sources of information and does not shy from a detailed examination of the controversies, conspiracies, and long-term consequences when we avoid learning from outbreaks, such as Zika. Foreword Acknowledgements References Introduction What is Zika? What Can We Learn? The Chapters References Contents 1 Why Study Zika? 1.1 Aegypti and Albopictus Mosquitoes Are Robust 1.2 Underreporting Frequencies and Issues Related to Immunity 1.3 Sexual Transmission 1.4 Microcephaly 1.5 ZIKV Crosses Brain and Placental Barriers 1.6 Travel Warnings and Women 1.7 Blue Marble Health 1.8 Cross-Protection/Cross-Infection 1.9 Long-Term ZIKA 1.10 Glioblastoma 1.11 Nothing to See Here 1.12 Conclusion References 2 Epidemic Events Are Communication Events 2.1 Conspiracy Theories 2.1.1 Pyriproxyfen 2.1.2 Oxitec Caused the Outbreak 2.1.3 Depopulation 2.1.4 Weaponizing Viruses 2.1.5 Vaccines and IPAK (Institute of Pure and Applied Knowledge) 2.1.6 Some Others 2.2 Unknowns 2.2.1 Mutations 2.2.2 Naïve Populations 2.3 Coinfection 2.4 Conclusion References 3 Zika Re-emerges 3.1 Zika Surfaces 3.2 Zika and Humans 3.3 Zika in Brazil 3.4 Zikv in the USA 3.4.1 Zika Everywhere (Travel-Related Reports) 3.4.2 Zika Spread (Where Mosquitoes Rule) 3.4.3 California 3.4.4 Florida 3.4.5 Texas 3.4.6 Puerto Rico and U.S. Territories 3.5 International Footprint 3.5.1 Cuba 3.5.2 Mexico 3.5.3 South America and the Caribbean 3.5.4 Asia 3.5.5 Australia 3.5.6 Northeast Asia 3.6 Women More Vulnerable 3.7 Conclusion References 4 ZIKV Ebbs 4.1 Tracking ZIKV 4.2 Transmission Challenges 4.3 Underreporting 4.4 Anomalies 4.5 Africa 4.6 Strains 4.7 Immunity 4.8 Underreporting Again 4.9 ZIKA Falls off the Charts 4.10 Is ZIKV Gone? 4.11 ZIKA in the 2000s 4.12 India 4.13 Other At-Risk Populations 4.14 Is ZIKA Still With Us? 4.15 Conclusion References 5 Convergence 5.1 Drivers 5.2 Travel and Trade 5.3 Poverty and Subsidence Living 5.4 Human Population Density and Mosquito Habitat Loss 5.4.1 Biodiversity 5.4.2 Deforestation 5.4.3 Land Use 5.5 Non-degradable Containers 5.6 Climate Change 5.6.1 Complex Feedbacks 5.6.2 The Climate Variables 5.6.3 Variable Interaction 5.7 Some Additional Concerns 5.7.1 Climate-Instigated Variables 5.7.2 The Human Factor 5.8 Conclusion References 6 Transmission 6.1 Transmission: Mosquito to Larva 6.2 Transmission: Mosquito to Mosquito 6.3 Transmission: Mosquito to Human (Autochthonous) and Human to Mosquito 6.4 Transmission: Sexually Transmitted Zika 6.5 Transmission: Vertical (Mother to Child) 6.6 Transmission: Blood Transfusion 6.7 Transmission: Organ Transplantation 6.8 Transmission Laboratory Exposure 6.9 Transmission: Tears 6.10 Transmission: Breast Milk 6.11 Transmission: Fertility Treatments 6.12 Transmission: An Anomaly 6.13 Conclusion References 7 Effects on Children: Part 1 7.1 CZS or ZCS Surfaces 7.2 General Implications 7.3 The Microcephaly Story 7.4 Trimester Distinctions 7.5 Symptoms 7.6 Long-Term Effects on Children 7.7 Long-Term Effects on Mothers 7.8 Epidemiological Mystery 7.9 Brazil and Microcephaly Cases 7.10 Colombia and Microcephaly Cases 7.11 What Happened? 7.12 Diagnostic Baselines 7.13 Three Theories 7.14 The Bock Theory 7.15 Fewer Pregnancies and More Abortions 7.16 Multicausal Cofactor Theory 7.16.1 Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus 7.16.2 Chikungunya 7.16.3 Dengue 7.17 Other Causes Altogether 7.18 Yellow Fever Vaccinations 7.19 Socioeconomic Issues 7.20 Conclusion References 8 Effects on Children, Part 2 8.1 The Consensus—ZIKV Is Linked to Microcephaly 8.1.1 The CDC and the WHO 8.1.2 Current Point of View 8.1.3 Some Studies 8.1.4 Follow-Up Needed 8.1.5 Toddlers 8.1.6 Later in Life 8.2 What Seems to Be Happening? 8.3 Some Theories and the Placenta 8.3.1 The Neural Stem Cell Story 8.3.2 Blood Supply Story 8.3.3 The Interferon Story 8.3.4 The AXL Story 8.3.5 The ANKLE2 Story 8.3.6 The KINESIN-5 Story 8.4 Other ZIKV-Related Implications for Children 8.4.1 Miscarriages and Stillbirths (Fetal Demise) 8.4.2 Blindness (Likely Associated with Microcephaly) 8.4.3 Myelin Damage 8.5 Conclusion References 9 Effects on Adults 9.1 Research Findings 9.1.1 Guillain-Barré Syndrome 9.1.2 Male Infertility 9.1.3 Epilepsy 9.1.4 Acute Disseminated Encephalomyelitis (ADEM) 9.1.5 Encephalitis 9.1.6 Other Inflammatory Diseases 9.2 Comorbidity Considerations 9.3 Social Poverty 9.4 Conclusions References 10 Vectors and Reservoirs 10.1 Primary Vector 10.2 How Do We Know? 10.2.1 Debates Over Aegypti 10.2.2 Debates Over Albopictus 10.2.3 Debates Over Aegypti and Albopictus 10.2.4 Debates Over Interspecific Mating Between Aegypti and Albopictus 10.2.5 Debates Over Culex 10.3 Debates Over Reducing Vector Densities 10.3.1 Benefits from Mosquitoes 10.3.2 Consequences of Eradicating Ae. aegypti 10.3.3 Minimal Impacts 10.3.4 Ethics 10.4 Debates Over Reservoir Hosts 10.4.1 Birds: Bulbuls 10.4.2 Bats 10.4.3 Primates 10.4.4 Humans 10.5 Debates Over Jurisdiction 10.6 Conclusion References 11 Diagnoses, Treatments, Vaccines 11.1 Research 11.2 Diagnosis 11.2.1 Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) 11.2.2 Blood Tests 11.2.3 Urine Tests 11.2.4 Saliva Tests 11.2.5 Quick Tests 11.3 Treatments 11.4 Vaccines 11.4.1 Vaccine Markets 11.4.2 Vaccine Developments for Pregnant Women 11.4.3 Vaccine Animal Trials 11.4.4 Vaccine Human Trials 11.4.5 Vaccine Concerns 11.4.6 Vaccines Canceled 11.5 Conclusion References 12 Twentieth-Century Vector Control 12.1 Direct Preventative Approaches 12.1.1 Light Traps 12.1.2 Chemical Approaches 12.1.3 Some Unique Approaches 12.2 Indirect Preventative Approaches 12.2.1 Individual Scale Efforts 12.2.2 Ecosystem Efforts 12.3 Conclusion References 13 Wolbachia 13.1 Two Companies 13.1.1 Eliminate Dengue (World Mosquito Program) 13.1.2 Mosquito Mate 13.2 Claims 13.2.1 World Mosquito Program (Formerly Eliminate Dengue) 13.2.2 Mosquitomate 13.3 State of the Wolbachia Option 13.4 Public Support 13.5 Controversies 13.6 Test Locations and Trials 13.6.1 World Mosquito Program (Formerly Eliminate Dengue) 13.6.2 Mosquitomate 13.7 Disposition: Successes and Concerns 13.7.1 General Feasibility 13.7.2 Separating Males from Females 13.7.3 Heat Stress 13.7.4 Under-Regulated 13.7.5 Environmental Complications 13.7.6 Genetic Diversity 13.7.7 Irreversibility 13.7.8 Bacterial Pathogen 13.7.9 West Nile Virus, River Blindness, Elephantiasis 13.7.10 Human Male Sterility 13.8 Conclusion References 14 Oxitec 14.1 Introducing Oxitec 14.1.1 Claims of Success 14.1.2 Testing and Approval 14.1.3 Oxitec and the FDA’S Center for Veterinary Medicine 14.1.4 Disposition: Successes and Concerns 14.1.5 Test Location: Key Haven, Florida (Raccoon Key) 14.1.6 Controversy Across Florida 14.1.7 Controversy Across the U.S. 14.1.8 Federal Government to the Rescue 14.1.9 Evans and Powell Article 14.1.10 Back to Florida 14.2 State of the Oxitec Option and Oxitec 2.0 14.3 Conclusion References 15 Gene Drives 15.1 Synthetic Biology 15.1.1 CRISPR 15.1.2 CRISPR and the DOD 15.2 Gene Drives Are Here 15.3 Gene Drives and Malaria 15.4 Gene Drives and Mosquitoes 15.4.1 A ZIKV-Resistant Mosquito 15.4.2 Underdeveloped and Weakened Females 15.4.3 Sterilized Males 15.4.4 Hermaphrodites 15.4.5 Sexual Biasing 15.4.6 Hardening Eggshells [11] 15.4.7 Invisibility Cloak 15.5 Gene Drives Debates 15.5.1 Reservations on CRISPR 15.5.2 Fears and Reservations 15.5.3 Public Understanding of Gene Drives 15.6 Conclusion References 16 Travel and Pregnancy Warnings 16.1 CDC Travel Warning 16.2 CDC/Who Birth Control Advice 16.3 Special Amplifiers 16.3.1 Summer Olympics 16.3.2 Undocumented Immigrants 16.4 Warnings 16.4.1 Travel Restrictions 16.4.2 Travel and Pregnancy Warning Poster 16.5 Effectiveness of the Warnings 16.5.1 Travel 16.5.2 Pregnancy Recommendation 16.5.3 United States 16.5.4 Brazil 16.5.5 Puerto Rico 16.6 Abortion 16.6.1 Testing and Abortions: In Florida 16.6.2 Abortions: Latin America 16.7 Post-epidemic Warnings 16.8 Conclusion References 17 Communicating Pandemic Risks 17.1 Pandemic Communication 17.1.1 Rhetoric of Warfighting 17.1.2 Panic 17.2 The Communicators 17.2.1 US Regulators 17.2.2 International Entities 17.3 The Themes 17.3.1 Poor Persons of Color Disease? 17.3.2 Women’s Disease? 17.4 Approaches 17.4.1 Social Amplification of Risk Framework 17.4.2 Branding 17.4.3 Framing 17.4.4 Risk Fatigue 17.5 Research on Controlling the Messaging 17.6 Amplification Stations 17.6.1 Government Officials 17.6.2 Other Interest Groups 17.7 Digital Amplification 17.7.1 Digital Amplification of ZIKV and Microcephaly 17.7.2 Digital Amplification of GM Mosquitoes 17.7.3 Fake News 17.8 Public Understanding of Messaging 17.9 Post Epidemic Warnings 17.10 Conclusion References 18 Pandemic Engagement 18.1 Experts 18.2 Design 18.3 Stakeholders 18.4 Outreach 18.5 Rationale 18.6 Justification 18.7 Typologies 18.8 Challenges 18.9 The Stages 18.10 Stage One: The Field Test 18.11 Stage Two: The Initial Deployment 18.12 Stage Three: The Ramp-Up Deployment 18.13 Stage Four: The Long-Term Association 18.14 Vector Control 18.15 Review of Some Engagement Activities 18.16 Conclusion References 19 Learning from ZIKV 19.1 Public Health Strategies 19.2 Rift Valley Fever 19.3 Disease X 19.4 Review of a An Approach 19.5 What Should We Have Learned? 19.5.1 Lesson One: How May We Reduce the Development Driver? 19.5.2 Lesson Two: How May We Reduce Uncertainty? 19.5.3 Lesson Three: How May We Adopt Viable Vector Control Approaches? 19.5.4 Lesson Four: How May We Be More Resilient and Responsive? 19.5.5 Lesson Five: How May We Productively Engage in Animal Studies? 19.6 Thoughts on Surveillance 19.6.1 Anticipatory Surveillance 19.6.2 Internet/Digital Bio-Surveillance 19.7 Thoughts on Preparedness 19.7.1 The Global Virome Project (GVP) 19.7.2 One Health 19.8 Mosquito Alert and Citizen Science 19.8.1 Mosquito Alert 19.8.2 Mosquito Stoppers 19.9 Pandemic Influenza Preparedness (PIP) Framework 19.9.1 Integrated Pest Management (IPM) 19.9.2 Integrated Pest and Vector Management (IPvM) 19.10 Conclusion 19.11 Closing Remarks References