Wastewater Engineering: Treatment and Resource Recovery

Description

Wastewater Engineering: Treatment and Resource Recovery, 5/e is a thorough update of McGraw-Hill's authoritative book on wastewater treatment. No environmental engineering professional or civil or environmental engineering major should be without a copy of this book - describing the rapidly evolving field of wastewater engineering technological and regulatory changes that have occurred over the last ten years in this discipline, including: a new view of a wastewater as a source of energy, nutrients and potable water; more stringent discharge requirements related to nitrogen and phosphorus; enhanced understanding of the fundamental microbiology and physiology of the microorganisms responsible for the removel of nitrogen and phosphorus and other constituents; an appreciation of the importance of the separate treatment of return flows with respect to meeting more stringent standards for nitrogen removal and opportunities for nutrient recovery; increased emphasis on the treatment of sludge and the management of biosolids; increased awareness of carbon footprints impacts and greenhouse gas emissions, and an emphasis on the development of energy neutral or energy positive wastewater plants through more efficient use of chemical and heat energy in wastewater. This revision contains a strong focus on advanced wastewater treatment technologies and stresses the reuse aspects of wastewater and biosolids. Cover Title Copyright Contents About the Author Preface Acknowledgments Foreword 1 Introduction to Wastewater Treatment and Process Analysis 1-1 Evolution of Wastewater Treatment Treatment Objectives Current Health and Environmental Concerns Sustainability Considerations 1-2 Evolution of Regulations of Significance to Wastewater Engineering Establishment of Environmental Protection Agency Important Federal Regulations Other Federal Regulations State and Regional Regulations 1-3 Characteristics of Wastewater Sources of Wastewater Types of Collection Systems Wastewater Constituents 1-4 Classification of Wastewater Treatment Methods Physical Unit Processes Chemical Unit Processes Biological Unit Processes 1-5 Application of Treatment Methods Wastewater Processing Residuals Processing Typical Treatment Process Flow Diagrams 1-6 Status of Wastewater Treatment in the United States Recent Survey Results Trends 1-7 Introduction to Process Analysis Mass-Balance Analysis Application of the Mass-Balance Analysis 1-8 Reactors Used in Wastewater Treatment Types of Reactors Hydraulic Characteristics of Reactors Application of Reactors 1-9 Modeling Ideal Flow in Reactors Ideal Flow in Complete-Mix Reactor Ideal Plug-Flow Reactor 1-10 Introduction to Process Kinetics Types of Reactions Rate of Reaction Specific Reaction Rate Effects of Temperature on Reaction Rate Coefficients Reaction Order Rate Expressions Used in Wastewater Treatment Analysis of Reaction Rate Coefficients 1-11 Introduction to Treatment Process Modeling Batch Reactor with Reaction Complete-Mix Reactor with Reaction Complete-Mix Reactors in Series with Reaction Ideal Plug-Flow Reactor with Reaction Comparison of Complete-Mix and Plug-Flow Reactors with Reaction Plug-Flow Reactor with Axial Dispersion and Reaction Other Reactor Flow Regimes and Reactor Combinations Problems and Discussion Topics 2 Wastewater Characteristics 2-1 Wastewater Characterization Wastewater Properties and Constituents Constituents of Concern in Wastewater Treatment 2-2 Sampling and Analytical Procedures Sampling Methods of Analysis Units of Expression for Physical and Chemical Parameters Useful Chemical Relationships 2-3 Physical Properties Sources of Physical Properties Solids Particle Size and Particle Size Measurement Particle Size Distribution Nanoparticles and Nanocomposites Turbidity Relationship Between Turbidity and TSS Color Absorption/Transmittance Temperature Thermal Energy Content of Wastewater Conductivity Density, Specific Gravity, and Specific Weight 2-4 Inorganic Nonmetallic Constituents Sources of Inorganic Nonmetallic Constituents pH Chlorides Alkalinity Nitrogen Phosphorus Sulfur Gases Odors 2-5 Metallic Constituents Sources of Metallic Constituents Importance of Metals Sampling and Methods of Analysis Typical Effluent Discharge Limits for Metals 2-6 Aggregate Organic Constituents Sources of Aggregate Organic Constituents Measurement of Organic Content Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Total and Soluble Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD and SCOD) Total and Dissolved Organic Carbon (TOC and DOTC) UV-Absorbing Organic Constituents Theoretical Oxygen Demand (ThOD) Interrelationships between BOD, COD, and TOC Oil and Grease Surfactants Chemical Energy in Wastewater and Biosolids 2-7 Individual Organic Compounds Sources of Individual Organic Compounds Priority Pollutants Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) Disinfection Byproducts Pesticides and Agricultural Chemicals Unregulated Trace Organic Compounds Analysis of Individual Organic Compounds 2-8 Radionuclides in Wastewater Sources of Radionuclide Units of Expression Description of Isotopes Found in Wastewater and Sludge Treatment Technologies for the Removal of Radionuclides 2-9 Biological Constituents Sources of Microorganisms in Wastewater Enumeration and Identification of Microorganisms Pathogenic Organisms and Prions Evolving Pathogenic Microorganisms 2-10 Toxicity Sources of Toxicity Evolution and Application of Toxicity Testing Toxicity Testing Analysis of Toxicity Test Results Application of Toxicity Test Results Identification of Toxicity Components Problems and Discussion Topics 3 Wastewater Flowrates and Constituent Loadings 3-1 Wastewater Sources and Flowrates Municipal Uses of Water Domestic Wastewater Sources and Flowrates Strategies for Reducing Interior Water Use and Wastewater Flowrates Water Use in Other Parts of the World Sources and Rates of Industrial (Nondomestic) Wastewater Flows Variations in Wastewater Flowrates Long-Term Multiyear Variations Due to Conservation Impact of Water Conservation on Future Planning 3-2 Impact of Collection System on Wastewater Flowrates Infiltration/Inflow Inflow into Collection Systems Exfiltration from Collection Systems Combined Collection System Flowrates Direct Measurement of Combined Sewer Flowrates and Wastewater Characteristics Calculation of Combined Sewer Flowrates 3-3 Analysis of Wastewater Flowrate Data Statistical Analysis of Flowrate Data Developing Design Parameters from Flowrate Data Observed Variability in Influent Flowrates 3-4 Analysis of Wastewater Constituents Wastewater Constituents Discharged By Individuals Constituent Concentrations Based on Individual Mass Discharges Mineral Increase Resulting from Water Use Composition of Wastewater in Collection Systems Variations in Constituent Concentrations Statistical Analysis of Constituent Concentrations Observed Variability in Influent Constituent Concentrations 3-5 Analysis of Constituent Mass Loading Data Simple Average Flow-Weighted Average Mass Loadings Effect of Mass Loading Variability on Treatment Plant Performance 3-6 Selection of Design Flowrates and Mass Loadings Design Flowrates Design Mass Loadings 3-7 Flow and Constituent Load Equalization Description/Application of Flow Equalization The Benefits of Flow Equalization Design Considerations Equalization of Constituent Mass Loading Rates Equalization of Sludge and Biosolids Processing Return Flows Problems and Discussion Topics 4 Wastewater Treatment Process Selection, Design, and Implementation 4-1 Planning for New and Upgrading Existing Wastewater Treatment Plants Need to Upgrade Existing Wastewater Treatment Plants Planning for New Wastewater Treatment Plants Treatment Process Design Considerations Owner Needs Environmental Considerations Compatibility with Existing Facilities Energy and Resource Requirements Cost Considerations Other Design Considerations 4-2 Considerations in Process Selection Important Factors in Process Selection Process Selection Based on Reaction Kinetics Process Selection Based On Mass Transfer Process Design Based on Loading Criteria Bench-Scale Tests and Test-Bed Pilot-Scale Studies Wastewater Discharge Permit Requirements 4-3 Treatment Process Reliability and Selection of Design Values Variability in Wastewater Treatment Selection of Process Design Parameters to Meet Discharge Permit Limits Performance of Combined Processes 4-4 Elements of Process Design Design Period Treatment Process Flow Diagrams Process Design Criteria Preliminary Sizing Solids Balance Plant Layout Plant Hydraulics Energy Management 4-5 Implementation of Wastewater Management Programs Facilities Planning Design Value Engineering Construction Facilities Startup and Operation 4-6 Financing Long-Term Municipal Debt Financing Non-Debt Financing Leasing Privatization Problems and Discussion Topics 5 Physical Unit Processes 5-1 Screening Classification of Screens Screenings Characteristics and Quantities Coarse Screens (Bar Racks) Fine Screens Microscreens Screenings Handling, Processing, and Disposal 5-2 Coarse Solids Reduction Comminutors Macerators Grinders Design Considerations 5-3 Mixing and Flocculation Continuous Rapid Mixing in Wastewater Treatment Continuous Mixing in Wastewater Treatment Energy Dissipation in Mixing and Flocculation Time Scale in Mixing Types of Mixers Used for Rapid Mixing in Wastewater Treatment Types of Mixers Used for Maintaining Solids in Suspension in Wastewater Treatment and Chemical Mixing Types of Mixers Used for Flocculation in Wastewater Treatment Types of Mixers Used for Continuous Mixing in Wastewater Treatment New Developments in Mixing Technology 5-4 Gravity Separation Theory Description Particle Settling Theory Discrete Particle Settling Flocculent Particle Settling Inclined Plate and Tube Settling Hindered (Zone) Settling Compression Settling Gravity Separation in an Accelerated Flow Field 5-5 Grit Removal Wastewater Grit Characteristics Grit Separators for Wastewater Grit Separators for Combined Wastewater and Stormwater Grit Washing Grit Drying Disposal of Grit Solids (Sludge) Degritting 5-6 Primary Sedimentation Description Sedimentation Tank Performance Design Considerations Characteristics and Quantities of and Scum 5-7 High-Rate Clarification Enhanced Particle Flocculation Analysis of Ballasted Particle Flocculation and Settling Process Application 5-8 Flotation Description Design Considerations for Dissolved-Air Flotation Systems 5-9 New Approaches for Primary Treatment Microscreening of Raw Wastewater Charged Bubble Flotation Primary Effluent Filtration 5-10 Gas Liquid Mass Transfer Historical Development of Gas Transfer Theories The Two-Film Theory of Gas Transfer Absorption of Gases Under Turbulent Conditions Absorption of Gases Under Quiescent Conditions Desorption (Removal) of Gases 5-11 Aeration Systems Oxygen Transfer Evaluation of Alpha (a) Correction Factor Types of Aeration Systems Diffused-Air Aeration Mechanical Aerators Energy Requirement for Mixing in Aeration Systems Generation and Dissolution of High-Purity Oxygen Postaeration Problems and Discussion Topics 6 Chemical Unit Processes 6-1 Role of Chemical Unit Processes in Wastewater Treatment Applications of Chemical Unit Processes Considerations in the Use of Chemical Unit Processes 6-2 Fundamentals of Chemical Coagulation Basic Definitions Nature of Particles in Wastewater Development and Measurement of Surface Charge Particle-Particle Interactions Particle Destabilization and Aggregation with Polyelectrolytes Particle Destabilization and Removal with Hydrolyzed Metal Ions 6-3 Chemical Precipitation for Improved Plant Performance Chemical Reactions in Wastewater Precipitation Applications Chemically Enhanced Primary Treatment (CEPT) Independent Physical-Chemical Treatment Estimation of Sludge Quantities from Chemical Precipitation 6-4 Chemical Phosphorus Removal Chemicals Used for Phosphorus Removal Phosphorus Removal from the Liquid Stream with Metal Salts Phosphorus Removal from the Liquid Stream with Calcium Strategies for Chemical Phosphorus Removal 6-5 Chemical Formation of Struvite for Ammonium and Phosphorus Removal Chemistry of Struvite Formation Control and/or Mitigation Measures for the Formation of Struvite Enhanced Struvite Formation for Nutrient Removal 6-6 Chemical Precipitation for Removal of Heavy Metals and Dissolved Substances Precipitation Reactions Co-precipitation with Phosphorus 6-7 Conventional Chemical Oxidation Applications for Conventional Chemical Oxidation Oxidants Used in Chemical Oxidation Processes Fundamentals of Chemical Oxidation Chemical Oxidation of Organic Constituents Chemical Oxidation of Ammonium Chemical Oxidation Process Limitations 6-8 Advanced Oxidation Applications for Advanced Oxidation Processes for Advanced Oxidation Basic Considerations for Advanced Oxidation Processes Advanced Oxidation Process Limitations 6-9 Photolysis Applications for Photolysis Photolysis Processes Basic Considerations for Photolysis Processes Photolysis Process Limitations 6-10 Chemical Neutralization, Scale Control, and Stabilization pH Adjustment Analysis of Scaling Potential Scale Control Stabilization 6-11 Chemical Storage, Feeding, Piping, and Control Systems Chemical Storage and Handling Dry Chemical Feed Systems Liquid Chemical Feed Systems Gas Chemical Feed Systems Initial Chemical Mixing Problems and Discussion Topics 7 Fundamentals of Biological Treatment 7-1 Overview of Biological Wastewater Treatment Objectives of Biological Treatment Role of Microorganisms in Wastewater Treatment Types of Biological Processes for Wastewater Treatment 7-2 Composition and Classification of Microorganisms Cell Components Cell Composition Environmental Factors Microorganism Identification and Classification Use of Molecular Tools 7-3 Introduction to Microbial Metabolism Carbon and Energy Sources for Microbial Growth Nutrient and Growth Factor Requirements 7-4 Bacterial Growth, Energetics, and Decay Bacterial Reproduction Bacterial Growth Patterns in a Batch Reactor Bacterial Growth and Biomass Yield Measuring Biomass Growth Estimating Biomass Yield and Oxygen Requirements from Stoichiometry Estimating Biomass Yield from Bioenergetics Stoichiometry of Biological Reactions Biomass Synthesis Yields for Different Growth Conditions Biomass Decay Observed versus Synthesis Yield 7-5 Microbial Growth Kinetics Microbial Growth Kinetics Terminology Rate of Utilization of Soluble Substrates Other Rate Expressions for Soluble Substrate Utilization Rate of Soluble Substrate Production from Biodegradable Particulate Organic Matter Net Biomass Growth Rate Kinetic Coefficients for Substrate Utilization and Biomass Growth Rate of Oxygen Uptake Effects of Temperature Total Volatile Suspended Solids and Active Biomass Net Biomass Yield and Observed Yield 7-6 Modeling Suspended Growth Treatment Processes Description of Suspended Growth Treatment Processes Solids Retention Time Biomass Mass Balance Substrate Mass Balance Mixed Liquor Solids Concentration and Solids Production The Observed Yield Oxygen Requirements Design and Operating Parameters Process Performance and Stability Modeling Plug-Flow Reactors 7-7 Substrate Removal in Attached Growth Treatment Process Biofilm Characteristics Biomass Characterization Mechanistic Models Substrate Flux in Biofilms Substrate Mass Balance for Biofilm Substrate Flux Limitations 7-8 Aerobic Oxidation Process Description Microbiology Process Operation Issues Stoichiometry of Aerobic Biological Oxidation Growth Kinetics Environmental Factors 7-9 Biological Oxidation of Inorganic Nitrogen Process Description Microbiology Stoichiometry of Biological Nitrification Nitification Kinetics AOB Kinetics NOB Kinetics Environmental Factors 7-10 Denitrification Process Description Microbiology Stoichiometry of Biological Denitrification and Denitritation Organic Substrate Requirements for Denitrification and Denitritation Denitrification Kinetics Environmental Factors 7-11 Anaerobic Ammonium Oxidation Process Description Microbiology Anammox Stoichiometry Growth Kinetics Environmental Factors 7-12 Greenhouse Gas from Biological Nitrogen Transformations Source of Nitrous Oxide Emissions Nitrous Oxide Production Pathways 7-13 Enhanced Biological Phosphorus Removal Process Description Processes Occurring in the Anaerobic Zone Processes Occurring in a Downstream Aerobic or Anoxic Zone Microbiology Other Process Considerations for EBPR Stoichiometry of Enhanced Biological Phosphorus Removal Growth Kinetics Environmental Factors 7-14 Anaerobic Fermentation and Oxidation Process Description Microbiology Stoichiometry of Anaerobic Fermentation and Oxidation Process Kinetics Environmental Factors 7-15 Biological Removal of Toxic and Recalcitrant Organic Compounds Development of Biological Treatment Methods Aerobic Biodegradation Abiotic Losses Modeling Biotic and Abiotic Losses 7-16 Biological Removal of Trace Organic Compounds Removal of Trace Organic Compounds Steady-State Fate Model 7-17 Biological Removal of Heavy Metals Problems and Discussion Topics 8 Suspended Growth Biological Treatment Processes 8-1 Introduction to the Activated-Sludge Process Historical Development of Activated Sludge Process Basic Process Description Evolution of the Conventional Activated-Sludge Process Nutrient Removal Processes 8-2 Wastewater Characterization Key Wastewater Constituents for Process Design Measurement Methods for Wastewater Characterization Recycle Flows and Loadings 8-3 Fundamentals of Process Selection, Design, and Control Overall Considerations in Treatment Process Implementation Important Factors in Process Selection and Design Process Control Operational Problems in Activated Sludge Systems with Secondary Clarifiers Operational Problems with MBR Systems 8-4 Selector Types and Design Consideration Selector Types and Design Considerations Poor Settling Even with Use of Selector 8-5 Activated Sludge Process Design Considerations Steady-State Design Approach Use of Simulation Model Model Matrix Format, Components, and Reactions Other Simulation Model Applications 8-6 Processes for Bod Removal and Nitrification Overview of BOD Removal and Nitrification Processes General Process Design Considerations Complete-Mix Activated-Sludge Process Design Sequencing Batch Reactor Process Design Staged Activated-Sludge Process Design Alternative Processes for BOD Removal and Nitrification 8-7 Processes for Biological Nitrogen Removal Process Development Overview of Types of Biological Nitrogen-Removal Processes General Process Design Considerations Preanoxic Denitrification Processes Postanoxic Denitrification Processes Low DO and Cyclic Nitrification/Denitrification Processes Alternative Process Configurations for Biological Nitrogen Removal Denitrification with External Carbon Addition Process Control and Performance 8-8 Processes for Enhanced Biological Phosphorus Removal Process Development Overview of Enhanced Biological Phosphorus Removal Processes General Process Design Considerations Operational Factors That Affect Enhanced Biological Phosphorus Removal Enhanced Biological Phosphorus Removal Process Design Provision for Chemical Addition Process Control and Performance Optimization 8-9 Aeration Tank Design for Activated-Sludge Processes Aeration System Aeration Tanks and Appurtenances 8-10 Analysis of Liquid-Solids Separation for Activated-Sludge Processes with Clarifiers Solids Separation by Secondary Clarifiers Assessing Sludge Thickening Characteristics Clarifier Design Based on Solids Flux Analysis Clarifier Design Based on State Point Analysis 8-11 Design Considerations for Secondary Clarifiers Types of Sedimentation Tank Sidewater Depth Flow Distribution Tank Inlet Design Weir Placement and Loading Scum Removal and Management 8-12 Solids Separation for Membrane Bioreactors Design Parameter Membrane Properties Membrane Design and Operating Characteristics Membrane Usage Membrane Fouling Issues Problems and Discussion Topics 9 Attached Growth and Combined Biological Treatment Processes 9-1 Introduction to Attached Growth Processes Types of Attached Growth Processes Mass Transfer Limitations in Attached Growth Processes 9-2 Nonsubmerged Attached Growth Processes General Process Description Trickling Filter Classification and Applications Advantages and Disadvantages of Trickling Filters Physical Facilities for Trickling Filters Design Considerations for Physical Facilities Process Design Considerations for BOD Removal Process Analysis for BOD Removal Process Analysis for Nitrification 9-3 Sequential Combined Trickling Filter and Suspended Solids Processes Process Development Process Applications Trickling Filter/Solids Contact Process Trickling Filter/Activated Sludge Process Series Trickling-Filter Activated-Sludge Process 9-4 Integrated Fixed-Film Activated Sludge Process Process Development Process Applications IFAS Process Advantages and Disadvantages Design of Physical Facilities IFAS Process Design Analysis BOD and Nitrification Design Approach 9-5 Moving Bed Biofilm Reactor (MBBR) Background MBBR Process Applications MBBR Process Advantages and Disadvantages Design of Physical Facilities MBBR Process Design Analysis BOD Removal and Nitrification Design 9-6 Submerged Aerobic Attached Growth Processes Process Development Process Applications Process Advantages and Disadvantages Design of Physical Facilities BAF Process Design Analysis FBBR Process Design Analysis 9-7 Attached Growth Denitrification Processes Process Development Description and Application of Attached Growth Denitrification Processes Process Design Analysis of Postanoxic Attached Growth Denitrification Operational Considerations for Postanoxic Attached Growth Denitrification 9-8 Emerging Biofilm Processes Membrane Biofilm Reactors Biofilm Airlift Reactors Aerobic Granules Reactor Problems and Discussion Topics 10 Anaerobic Suspended and Attached Growth Biological Treatment Processes 10-1 The Rationale for Anaerobic Treatment Advantages of Anaerobic Treatment Processes Disadvantages of Anaerobic Treatment Processes Summary Assessment 10-2 Development of Anaerobic Technologies Historical Developments in Liquefaction Treatment of Wastewater Sludges Treatment of High Strength Wastes Future Developments 10-3 Available Anaerobic Technologies Types of Anaerobic Technologies Application of Anaerobic Technologies 10-4 Fundamental Considerations in the Application of Anaerobic Treatment Processes Characteristics of the Wastewater Pretreatment of Wastewater Expected Gas Production Energy Production Potential Sulfide Production Ammonia Toxicity 10-5 Design Considerations for Implementation of Anaerobic Treatment Processes Treatment Efficiency Needed General Process Design Parameters Process Implementation Issues 10-6 Process Design Examples Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket Process Anaerobic Contact Process Use of Simulation Models 10-7 Codigestion of Organic Wastes with Municipal Sludge Problems and Discussion Topics 11 Separation Processes for Removal of Residual Constituents 11-1 Need for Additional Wastewater Treatment 11-2 Overview of Technologies Used for Removal of Residual Particulate and Dissolved Constituents Separation Processes Based on Mass Transfer Transformation Based on Chemical and Biological Processes Application of Unit Processes for Removal of Residual Constituents 11-3 Unit Processes for the Removal of Residual Particulate and Dissolved Constituents Typical Process Flow Diagrams Process Performance Expectations 11-4 Introduction to Depth Filtration Description of the Filtration Process Filter Hydraulics Modeling the Filtration Process 11-5 Depth Filtration: Selection and Design Considerations Available Filtration Technologies Performance of Different Types of Depth Filters Considerations Related to Design and Operation of Treatment Facilities Selection of Filtration Technology Design Considerations for Granular Medium Filters 11-6 Surface Filtration Available Filtration Technologies Description of the Surface Filtration Process Performance of Surface Filters Design Considerations Pilot Plant Studies 11-7 Membrane Filtration Processes Membrane Process Terminology Membrane Process Classification Membrane Containment Vessels Operational Modes for Pressurized Configurations Process Analysis for MF and UF Membranes Operating Strategies for MF and UF Membranes Process Analysis for Reverse Osmosis Membrane Fouling Control of Membrane Fouling Application and Performance of Membranes Forward Osmosis: An Emerging Membrane Technology Pilot-Plant Studies for Membrane Applications Management of Retentate 11-8 Electrodialysis Description of the Electrodialysis Process Electrodialysis Reversal Power Consumption Operating Considerations Electrodialysis Versus Reverse Osmosis 11-9 Adsorption Applications for Adsorption Types of Adsorbents Fundamentals of Adsorption Processes Development of Adsorption Isotherms Adsorption of Mixtures Adsorption Capacity Small Scale Column Tests Analysis of Powdered Activated Carbon Contactor Activated Sludge-Powdered Activated Carbon Treatment Carbon Regeneration Adsorption Process Limitations 11-10 Gas Stripping Analysis of Gas Stripping Design of Stripping Towers Air Stripping Applications 11-11 Ion Exchange Ion Exchange Materials Typical Ion Exchange Reactions Exchange Capacity of Ion Exchange Resins Ion Exchange Chemistry Application of Ion Exchange Operational Considerations 11-12 Distillation Distillation Processes Performance Expectations in Reclamation Applications Operating Problems Disposal of Concentrated Waste Problems and Discussion Topics 12 Disinfection Processes 12-1 Introduction to Disinfectants Used in Wastewater Characteristics for an Ideal Disinfectant Disinfection Agents and Methods Mechanisms Used to Explain Action of Disinfectants Comparison of Disinfectants 12-2 Disinfection Process Considerations Physical Facilities Used for Disinfection Factors Affecting Performance Development of the CT Concept for Predicting Disinfection Performance Application of the CT Concept to Wastewater Disinfection Performance Comparison of Disinfection Technologies 12-3 Disinfection with Chlorine Characteristics of Chlorine Compounds Chemistry of Chlorine Compounds Breakpoint Reaction with Chlorine Effectiveness of Free and Combined Chlorine as Disinfectants Measurement and Reporting of Disinfection Process Performance Factors that Affect Disinfection of Wastewater with Chlorine Compounds Modeling the Chlorine Disinfection Process Required Chorine Dosages for Disinfection Formation and Control of Disinfection Byproducts (DBPs) Environmental Impacts of Disinfection with Chlorine 12-4 Disinfection with Chlorine Dioxide Characteristics of Chlorine Dioxide Chlorine Dioxide Chemistry Effectiveness of Chlorine Dioxide as a Disinfectant Modeling the Chlorine Dioxide Disinfection Process Required Chlorine Dioxide Dosages for Disinfection Byproduct Formation and Control Environmental Impacts 12-5 Dechlorination Dechlorination of Treated Wastewater with Sulfur Dioxide Dechlorination of Treated Wastewater with Sodium Based Compounds Dechlorination with Hydrogen Peroxide Dechlorination with Activated Carbon Dechlorination of Chlorine Dioxide with Sulfur Dioxide 12-6 Design of Chlorination and Dechlorination Facilities Sizing Chlorination Facilities Disinfection Process Flow Diagrams Dosage Control Injection and Initial Mixing Chlorine Contact Basin Design Assessing the Hydraulic Performance of Existing Chlorine Contact Basins Outlet Control and Chlorine Residual Measurement Chlorine Storage Facilities Chemical Containment Facilities Dechlorination Facilities 12-7 Disinfection with Ozone Ozone Properties Ozone Chemistry Effectiveness of Ozone as a Disinfectant Modeling the Ozone Disinfection Process Required Ozone Dosages for Disinfection Estimation of the CT Value Byproduct Formation and Control Environmental Impacts of Using Ozone Other Benefits of Using Ozone Ozone Disinfection Systems Components 12-8 Other Chemical Disinfection Methods Peracetic Acid Use of Peroxone as a Disinfectant Sequential Chlorination Combined Chemical Disinfection Processes 12-9 Ultraviolet (UV) Radiation Disinfection Source of UV Radiation Types of UV Lamps UV Disinfection System Configurations Quartz Sleeve Cleaning Systems Mechanism of Inactivation by UV Irradiation Germicidal Effectiveness of UV Irradiation Estimating UV Dose Ultraviolet Disinfection Guidelines Relationship of UV Guidelines to UV System Design Validation of UV Reactor or System Performance Factors Effecting UV System Design Selection and Sizing of a UV Disinfection System Use of Spot-Check Bioassay to Validate UV System Performance Troubleshooting UV Disinfection Systems Environmental Impacts of UV Radiation Disinfection 12-10 Disinfection By Pasteurization Description of the Pasteurization Process Thermal Disinfection Kinetics Germicidal Effectiveness of Pasteurization Regulatory Requirements Application of Pasteurization for Disinfection Problems and Discussion Topics 13 Processing and Treatment of Sludges 13-1 Sludge Sources, Characteristics, and Quantities Sources Characteristics Quantities 13-2 Regulations for the Reuse and Disposition of Sludge in the United States Land Application Surface Disposition Pathogen and Vector Attraction Reduction Incineration 13-3 Sludge Processing Flow Diagrams 13-4 Sludge and Scum Pumping Pumps Headloss Determination Sludge Piping 13-5 Preliminary Sludge Processing Operations Grinding Screening Degritting Blending Storage 13-6 Thickening Application Description and Design of Thickeners 13-7 Introduction to Sludge Stabilization 13-8 Alkaline Stabilization Chemical Reactions in Lime Stabilization Heat Generation Application of Alkaline Stabilization Processes 13-9 Anaerobic Digestion Process Fundamentals Description of Mesophilic Anaerobic Digestion Processes Process Design for Mesophilic Anaerobic Digestion Selection of Tank Design and Mixing System Methods for Enhancing Sludge Loading and Digester Performance Gas Production, Collection, and Use Digester Heating Advanced Anaerobic Digestion Sludge Pre-treatment for Anaerobic Digestion Co-digestion with Other Organic Waste Material 13-10 Aerobic Digestion Process Description Conventional Air Aerobic Digestion Dual Digestion Autothermal Thermophilic Aerobic Digestion (ATAD) Improved ATAD Systems High-Purity Oxygen Digestion Problems and Discussion Topics 14 Biosolids Processing, Resource Recovery and Beneficial Use 14-1 Chemical Conditioning Polymers Factors Affecting Polymer Conditioning Polymer Dosage Determination Mixing Conditioning Makeup and Feed 14-2 Dewatering Overview of Dewatering Technologies Centrifugation Belt-Filter Press Rotary Press Screw Press Filter Presses Electro-Dewatering Sludge Drying Beds Reed Beds Lagoons 14-3 Heat Drying Heat-Transfer Methods Process Description Product Characteristics and Use Product Transport and Storage Fire and Explosion Hazards Air Pollution and Odor Control 14-4 Advanced Thermal Oxidation Fundamental Aspects of Complete Combustion Multiple-Hearth Incineration Fluidized-Bed Incineration Energy Recovery from Thermal Oxidation Coincineration with Municipal Solid Waste Air-Pollution Control 14-5 Composting Process Microbiology Composting Process Stages Composting Process Steps Composting Methods Design Considerations Co-composting with Municipal Solid Wastes Public Health and Environmental Issues 14-6 Sludge and Biosolids Conveyance and Storage Conveyance Methods Storage 14-7 Solids Mass Balances Preparation of Solids Mass Balances Performance Data for Solids Processing Facilities Impact of Return Flows and Loads 14-8 Resource Recovery from Sludges and Biosolids Recovery of Nutrients Agricultural Land Application Non-Agricultural Land Applications 14-9 Energy Recovery from Sludge and Biosolids Energy Recovery through Anaerobic Digestion Energy Recovery by Thermal Oxidation Energy Recovery from Dried Material through Gasification and Pyrolysis Production of Oil and Liquid Fuel 14-10 Application of Biosolids to Land Benefits of Land Application U.S. EPA Regulations for Beneficial Use and Disposal of Biosolids Management Practices Site Evaluation and Selection Design Loading Rates Application Methods Application to Dedicated Lands Landfilling Problems and Discussion Topics 15 Plant Recycle Flow Treatment and Nutrient Recovery 15-1 Sidestream Identification and Characterization Sidestreams Derived from Primary and Secondary Sludges Sidestreams Derived from Fermented Primary and Digested Primary and Secondary Sludges 15-2 Mitigating Recycle Flows and Loads Sidestream Pretreatment Equalization of Sidestream Flows and Loads 15-3 Reduction of Suspended Solids and Colloidal Material Sidestreams Derived from Sludge Thickening Sidestreams Derived from Biosolids Dewatering Removal of Colloidal Matter 15-4 Physiochemical Processes for Phosphorus Recovery Description of the Crystallization Process Recovery of Phosphorus as Magnesium Ammonium Phosphate (Struvite) Recovery of Phosphorus as Calcium Phosphate Phosphorus Recovery from Mainstream Processes 15-5 Physiochemical Processes for Ammonia Recovery and Destruction Recovery of Ammonia by Air Stripping and Acid Absorption Recovery of Ammonia by Steam Stripping Air Stripping with Thermocatalytic Destruction of Ammonia 15-6 Beneficial Use of Recovered Phosphate and Ammonium Products Magnesium Ammonium Phosphate Hexahydrate (Struvite) Calcium Phosphate (Hydroxapatite) Ammonium Sulfate Ammonium Nitrate 15-7 Biological Removal of Nitrogen from Sidestreams Nitrogen Removal Processes Separate Treatment Processes for Nitrogen Removal Integrated Sidestream-Mainstream Treatment and Bioaugmentation 15-8 Nitrification and Denitrification Processes Fundamental Process Considerations Treatment Processes 15-9 Nitritation and Denitritation Processes Fundamental Process Considerations Treatment Processes 15-10 Partial Nitritation and Anaerobic Ammonium Oxidation (Deammonification) Processes Fundamental Process Considerations Treatment Processes 15-11 Process Design Considerations for Biological Treatment Processes Sidestream Characteristics and Treatment Objectives Design Loading and Load Equalization Sidestream Pretreatment Sidestream Reactor Volume Aeration System Sludge Retention Time and Mixed Liquor Suspended Solids Concentration Chemical Requirements Operating Temperature and pH Operating pH Energy Balance to Determine Reactor Cooling Requirements Problems and Discussion Topics 16 Air Emissions from Wastewater Treatment Facilities and Their Control 16-1 Types of Emissions 16-2 Regulatory Requirements Ambient Air Quality and Attainment Status Preconstruction and Operating Permitting Programs Stationary Source Control Technology Requirements 16-3 Odor Management Types of Odors Sources of Odors Measurement of Odors Odor Dispersion Modeling Movement of Odors from Wastewater Treatment Facilities Strategies for Odor Management Odor Treatment Methods Selection and Design of Odor Control Facilities Design Considerations for Chemical Scrubbers Design Considerations for Odor Control Biofilters 16-4 Control of Volatile Organic Carbon Emissions Physical Properties of Selected VOCs Emission of VOCs Mass Transfer Rates for VOCs Mass Transfer of VOCs from Surface and Diffused-Air Aeration Processes Control Strategies for VOCs Treatment of Off-Gases 16-5 Emissions from the Combustion Of Gases And Solids Sources of Fuels Combustion Systems Used at Wastewater Treatment Plants Emissions of Concern from Combustion Sources Flaring of Digester Gas 16-6 Emission of Greenhouse Gases Framework for Greenhouse Gases Reduction Assessment Protocols Opportunities for GHG Reduction at Wastewater Treatment Facilities Problems and Discussion Topics 17 Energy Considerations in Wastewater Management 17-1 Factors Driving Energy Management Potential for Energy Cost Savings Energy Supply Reliability Considerations for Sustainability 17-2 Energy in Wastewater Chemical Energy Thermal Energy Hydraulic Energy 17-3 Fundamentals of a Heat Balance Concept of a Heat Balance Preparation of a Heat Balance 17-4 Energy Usage in Wastewater Treatment Plants Types of Energy Sources Used at Wastewater Treatment Facilities Energy Use for Wastewater Treatment Energy Use by Individual Treatment Processes Advanced and New Wastewater Treatment Technologies 17-5 Energy Audits and Benchmarking Benchmarking Energy Usage Benchmarking Protocol 17-6 Recovery and Utilization of Chemical Energy Fuels Derived from Wastewater Energy Recovery from Gaseous Fuels with Engines and Turbines Energy Recovery from Gaseous Fuels with Boilers Energy Recovery from Solid Fuels Energy Recovery from Syngas Energy Recovery with Fuel Cell 17-7 Recovery and Utilization of Thermal Energy Sources of Heat Demands for Heat Devices for Waste Heat Recovery and Utilization Design Considerations for Thermal Energy Recovery Systems 17-8 Recovery and Utilization of Hydraulic Potential Energy Type of Hydraulic Potential Energy Recovery Devices Application of Hydraulic Energy Recovery Devices Use of Residual Pressure Head in Treatment Processes 17-9 Energy Management Process Optimization and Modification for Energy Saving Process Modification for Increased Energy Production Peak Flowrate Management (Peak Energy Usage) Selection of Energy Sources 17-10 Future Opportunities for Alternative Wastewater Treatment Processes Enhanced Energy Recovery of Particulate Organic Matter Reduced Energy Usage in Biological Treatment Reduced Energy Usage through the Use of Alternative Treatment Processes Prospects for the Future Problems and Discussion Topics 18 Wastewater Management: Future Challenges and Opportunities 18-1 Future Challenges and Opportunities Asset Management Design for Energy and Resource Recovery Design of Wastewater Treatment Plants for Potable Reuse Decentralized (Satellite) Wastewater Treatment Low Impact Development Triple Bottom Line 18-2 Impact of Population Demographics, Climate Change and Sea Level Rise, Uncontrollable Events, and Unintended Consequences Impact of Population Demographics Impact of Climate Change and Sea Level Rise Impact of Uncontrollable Events Impact of the Law of Unintended Consequences 18-3 Upgrading Treatment Plant Performance Through Process Optimization and/or Operational Changes Process Optimization Operational Changes to Improve Plant Performance 18-4 Upgrading Treatment Plant Performance Through Process Modification Upgrading Physical Facilities Upgrading to Meet New Constituent Removal Requirements 18-5 Management of Wet-Weather Flows SSO Policy Issues SSO Guidance Wet-Weather Management Options Discussion Topics Appendixes A: Conversion Factors B: Physical Properties of Selected Gases and the Composition of Air C: Physical Properties of Water D: Statistical Analysis of Data E: Dissolved Oxygen Concentration in Water as a Function of Temperature, Salinity, and Barometric Pressure F: Carbonate Equilibrium G: Moody Diagrams for the Analysis of Flow in Pipes H: Analysis of Nonideal Flow in Reactors using Tracers I: Modeling Nonideal Flow in Reactors Indexes Name Index A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Subject Index A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y Z