The Structural Integrity of Carbon Fiber Composites: Fifty Years of Progress and Achievement of the Science, Development, and Applications

Description

This book brings together a diverse compilation of inter-disciplinary chapters on fundamental aspects of carbon fiber composite materials and multi-functional composite structures: including synthesis, characterization, and evaluation from the nano-structure to structure meters in length.  The content and focus of contributions under the umbrella of structural integrity of composite materials embraces topics at the forefront of composite materials science and technology, the disciplines of mechanics, and development of a new predictive design methodology of the safe operation of engineering structures from cradle to grave.  Multi-authored papers on multi-scale modelling of problems in material design and predicting the safe performance of engineering structure illustrate the inter-disciplinary nature of the subject. The book examines topics such  as Stochastic micro-mechanics theory and application for advanced composite systems Construction of the evaluation process for structural integrity of material and structure Nano- and meso-mechanics modelling of structure evolution during the accumulation of damage Statistical meso-mechanics of composite materials Hierarchical analysis including "age-aware," high-fidelity simulation and virtual mechanical testing of composite structures right up to the point of failure. The volume is ideal for scientists, engineers, and students interested in carbon fiber composite materials, and other composite material systems. Preface Acknowledgements Contents Part I 1 50 Years in Carbon Fibre, 60 Years in Composites 1.1 A Perspective: 1956–2016 1.2 Vibration and Damping in Composites 1.3 Non-destructive Testing and Quality Assurance for Components Made Using CFRP 1.4 Effect of Aggressive Environments on CFRP Performance 1.5 The Special Problems of Adhesive Bonding with CFRP 1.6 Final Remarks, but Not “Conclusions” References 2 `But How Can We Make Something Useful Out of Black String?' The Development of Carbon Fibre Composites Manufacturing (1965 –2015) 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Understanding Prepreg Layup 2.2.1 Background and Early History 2.2.2 The Early Development of an Understanding of Reinforcement Deformation 2.2.3 Drape Modelling 2.2.4 Understanding Manufacturability 2.3 Resin Transfer Moulding 2.4 Defects and Variability in Composites Manufacturing 2.4.1 Introduction 2.4.2 In-Process Inspection and Defect Identification 2.4.3 Dimensional Fidelity 2.5 Conclusions, Modelling and Predictive Tools, Current Status and Future Work References 3 Boron Fiber to Carbon Fiber 3.1 Introduction 3.2 NASA-Virginia Tech Composites Program 3.3 Boron Fiber Composites 3.4 Fiber Property Comparisons 3.5 Carbon Composite Test Methods 3.5.1 Tension 3.5.2 Compression 3.5.3 Shear 3.6 Free Edge Effects 3.7 Concluding Remarks References 4 Serendipity in Carbon Fibres: Interfaces and Interphases in Composites 4.1 Introduction 4.2 High-Strength Carbon Fibres from PAN Precursors 4.3 Manufacturing Process for Carbon Fibres 4.3.1 The Carbon Fibre Manufacturing Process 4.4 The Interface in CFRP 4.4.1 CF Surface Chemistry 4.4.1.1 High-Strength (HS) Carbon Fibre 4.4.1.2 High-Modulus (HM) Carbon Fibre 4.4.2 Assessment Interfacial Strength in Composites 4.4.2.1 Interlaminar Shear Strength (ILSS) 4.4.2.2 The Fragmentation Test 4.4.3 The Role of Sizing in Interphase Formation 4.4.4 Designing Interphases for Improved Properties 4.5 Conclusions References Part II 5 Nano-Engineered Hierarchical Carbon Fibres and Their Composites: Preparation, Properties and Multifunctionalities 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Preparation of Hierarchical CF/CNT Composites 5.3 Properties of Hierarchical CF/CNT Composites 5.4 Multifunctionalities of Hierarchical CNT/CF Composites 5.5 Conclusions and Outlook References 6 Nano-engineered Carbon Fibre-Reinforced Composites: Challenges and Opportunities 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Composites with CNT-Reinforced Matrices 6.3 Composites with CNT-Reinforced Interfaces 6.4 Modelling of Nano-engineered Fibre-Reinforced Composites 6.5 Composites with CNT Fibres 6.6 Concluding Remarks References 7 A Nano-micro-macro-multiscale Model for Progressive Failure Prediction in Advanced Composites 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Atomistic Level Analysis Using Molecular Dynamics (MD) 7.2.1 Materials Failure Simulation Using Molecular Dynamics (MD) 7.2.1.1 Strength-Based Failure Modeling 7.2.1.2 Fracture-Based Failure Modeling 7.3 Micromechanics Level Analysis Using the Generalized Method of Cells 7.4 Three-Dimensional Ply-Level Analysis Using Finite Element Analysis and Multiscale Coupling 7.5 Closing Remarks References 8 Carbon Fibre-Reinforced Polymer Laminates with Nanofiller-Enhanced Multifunctionality 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Enhanced Mechanical Properties 8.2.1 Typical Characterisation Methods for FRP 8.2.1.1 Interlaminar Fracture Toughness 8.2.1.2 Compression-After-Impact (CAI) Strength 8.2.1.3 Interlaminar Shear Strength 8.2.2 Nanofiller-Enhanced Mechanical Properties 8.2.2.1 Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs) 8.2.2.2 Nanofibres 8.2.2.3 Organoclay 8.2.2.4 Nanosilica and/or Rubber 8.2.2.5 Other Fillers 8.2.3 GIC, GIIC and GIIC/GIC 8.2.4 Interlaminar Shear Strength of Different Nanofiller-Enhanced CFRP Composites 8.2.5 CAI Strength 8.2.6 Fatigue Behaviours 8.3 Electrical Conductivity 8.4 Thermal and Thermomechanical Aspects 8.5 Further Exploitation 8.6 Conclusions and Remarks References 9 Analysis Models for Polymer Composites Across Different Length Scales 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Computational Micro-Mechanics 9.2.1 RVE Generation 9.2.2 Constitutive Models for the Resin, Fibers, and Interface 9.2.2.1 Epoxy Resin 9.2.2.2 Reinforcing Fibers 9.2.2.3 Interface 9.2.3 Failure Envelopes of UD Composite Systems 9.2.4 In Situ Simulations 9.2.4.1 Tension 9.2.4.2 Compression 9.2.5 Longitudinal Failure 9.3 Meso-Models: Onset and Propagation of Ply Damage 9.3.1 Smeared Crack Model for Transverse Fracture 9.3.1.1 Initiation Criterion 9.3.1.2 Intersection with the Fracture Surface 9.3.1.3 Traction Tensor 9.3.1.4 Smeared Crack Model 9.3.2 Damage Model for Longitudinal Fracture 9.3.3 Preliminary Verification and Validation 9.4 Macro-Models: Finite Fracture Mechanics 9.5 Conclusions and Outlook References Part III 10 Microscale Characterization Techniques of Fibre-Reinforced Polymers 10.1 Virtual Testing for Structural Composite Materials: A Multiscale Perspective 10.2 Fibre Characterization 10.3 Matrix Characterization 10.3.1 Instrumented Nanoindentation 10.3.2 Micropillar Compression Tests 10.4 Fibre/Matrix Interface Characterization 10.5 Conclusions and Future Works References 11 Fibre Distribution and the Process-Property Dilemma 11.1 Introduction 11.1.1 Process 11.1.2 Properties 11.1.3 Voids and Resin-Rich Volumes 11.1.4 Micro-/Meso-Structural Characterisation 11.2 Tessellation Techniques 11.3 Fractal Dimensions 11.3.1 Discontinuous Fibre Composites 11.3.2 Continuous Fibre Composites 11.4 Concluding Remarks References 12 Analysis of Defect Developments in Composite Forming 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Analysis of Wrinkling of Composite Reinforcements During Forming 12.2.1 Unidirectional Materials 12.2.2 Explicit Approach for the Analysis of Wrinkling in Woven Reinforcement Forming 12.2.3 Shell Finite Element Made of Textile Reinforcement 12.2.4 Simulation of Wrinkle Development in Textile Reinforcement Forming 12.3 Mesoscopic Analyses: Slippage Between Yarns 12.3.1 Slippage During Reinforcement Forming 12.3.2 Mesoscopic FE Analyses 12.4 Transition Zones and Second-Gradient Approach 12.4.1 Transition Zone in Preforms 12.4.2 Second-Gradient Approach 12.4.3 Simulation of Transition Zones 12.4.4 S Shape in a Bias Extension Test on an Unbalanced Woven Reinforcement 12.5 Conclusions References Part IV 13 Deformation Mechanisms of Carbon Fibres and Carbon Fibre Composites 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Deformation of Carbon Fibres 13.2.1 Raman Spectra of Carbon Fibres 13.2.2 Stress-Induced Raman Band Shifts 13.3 Deformation of Carbon Fibres in Composites 13.3.1 Analysis of Micromechanics 13.3.2 Effect of Fibre Surface Treatment 13.3.3 Interfacial Shear Stress 13.4 Conclusions References 14 Micromechanical Evidences on Interfibre Failure of Composites 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Tools 14.3 Micromechanics to Understand Interfibre Failure 14.4 Interfibre Failure 14.4.1 Under Tension 14.4.2 Under Compression 14.5 Micromechanics in Fatigue Loading 14.6 The Role of Residual Stresses 14.6.1 Under Tension 14.6.2 Under Compression 14.7 Other Studies 14.7.1 The Role of a Secondary Fibre 14.7.2 Scale Effect at Micromechanical Level 14.8 Conclusions References 15 Progressive Damage in Fibre-Reinforced Composites: Towards More Accurate and Efficient Computational Modelling and Analysis 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Modelling Cracks and Delaminations 15.3 The Smeared Crack Method and Open-Hole Problems 15.3.1 Open-Hole Problems 15.3.2 Modelling of Open-Hole Problems 15.3.3 Model Predictions and Comparison with Experimental Results 15.4 Development of Novel Numerical Methods 15.4.1 The XFEM-CE Method 15.4.2 Floating Node Method 15.5 Conclusions References 16 Predicting Properties of Undamaged and Damaged Carbon Fibre Reinforced Composites 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Prediction of Effective Thermo-Elastic Constants for Undamaged UD Composites 16.3 Effective Thermo-Elastic Constants for Plies of Undamaged UD Composites 16.3.1 Stress/Strain Relations for Individual Plies in a Laminate 16.3.2 Effective Stress/Strain Relations for any Undamaged Symmetric Laminate 16.4 Stress Transfer Mechanics for Fibre Fracture and Matrix Cracking (Perfect Interfaces) 16.5 Modelling Crack Bridging of Matrix Cracks for Perfectly Bonded Interfaces 16.6 Modelling Crack Bridging with Debonded Interfaces 16.7 Effects of Ply Cracking on Thermo-Elastic Constants of Damaged Laminates 16.7.1 Macroscopic Effective Stress/Strain Relations for a Laminate 16.7.2 Effective Thermo-Elastic Constants for Damaged Laminates 16.8 Predicting Progressive Ply Crack Formation in Multiple-Ply Laminates 16.9 Embedded Ply Cracks 16.10 Closing Remarks References Part V 17 Composites Toughen Up! 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Matrix Resins in the 1970s 17.2.1 Principles of Epoxy Toughening 17.3 `Second Generation' Epoxy Matrices, in the 1980s 17.4 The `Thermoplastics Versus Thermosets' Debate 17.5 Not Starting Cracks 17.5.1 Interleaf Toughening 17.6 Stopping Cracks 17.6.1 Microfasteners for Use with Prepregs 17.6.2 Microfasteners for Use with Dry Fibre Preforms and Liquid Resin Infusion Processes 17.7 Where in the Structure is the Toughness Needed? 17.8 Damage Tolerant Structures of the Future References 18 Slow Cracking in Composite Materials: Catastrophic Fracture of Composite Structures 18.1 In Search of Structural Integrity: A Point of View 18.2 Contemporary Composites in Service 18.3 Why Carbon Fibre? 18.4 So Why Do Materials Still Crack and Structures Still Collapse? 18.5 The Traditional Route of Engineering Design 18.6 Fitness Considerations for Long-Life Implementation 18.7 Structural Integrity and Length Scale 18.8 Structural Integrity and Multi-scale Modelling 18.9 At the Heart of Structural Integrity 18.10 A Guide to Thinking and Planning a Physical Model 18.11 Constitutive Models: The Internal Material State Variable Method 18.12 Multi-scale Modelling and Computer Simulation 18.12.1 Simulation of a Delamination Crack Using a Cohesive Interface Model 18.13 The Future Looks Bright 18.14 Final Remarks References Further Reading 19 Finite Fracture Mechanics: A Useful Tool to Analyze Cracking Mechanisms in Composite Materials 19.1 Introduction 19.2 The Coupled Criterion 19.2.1 Full Field Formulation 19.2.2 Matched Asymptotic Expansions Formulation 19.3 Free-Edge Delamination in Laminated Composites 19.4 Crack Deflection at the Fiber/Matrix Interface 19.4.1 The Cook and Gordon Mechanism 19.4.2 A Matrix Crack Impinging Upon the Fiber/Matrix Interface 19.4.3 Influence of Mode Mix 19.5 Conclusion References 20 Traction-Separation Relations in Delamination of Layered Carbon-Epoxy Composites Under Monotonic Loads: Experiments and Modeling Nomenclature 20.1 Introduction 20.2 Fiber Bridging in Delamination and Fracture 20.3 Internal Strain Measurements Using Fiber Bragg Grating Sensors 20.4 Experimental Methods 20.4.1 Material and Specimen Preparation 20.4.2 Fracture Tests 20.4.3 Numerical Analysis 20.5 Iterative Approach to Identify Bridging Tractions 20.6 Cohesive Zone Modeling 20.7 Results 20.7.1 Intralaminar Crack in Uniaxial Carbon Epoxy 20.7.2 Interlaminar Crack in Uniaxial Carbon Epoxy 20.7.3 Delamination in Cross Ply Carbon-Epoxy Specimen 20.8 Micromechanics Approach Using Embedded-Cell Model 20.9 Conclusions References 21 Damage and Failure Analysis of Bolted Joints in Composite Laminates 21.1 Introduction 21.2 Critical Stresses and Failure Modes 21.3 Stress Analysis 21.3.1 Analytical Methods 21.3.2 Experimental Methods 21.3.3 Numerical Methods 21.4 Strength Prediction Techniques 21.4.1 Strength Prediction Based on Hole Boundary Stresses 21.4.2 Semiempirical Techniques 21.4.3 Progressive Failure Analysis (PFA) 21.4.4 The Damage Zone Model (DZM) 21.5 Measurement of Joint Strength and Determination of Subcritical Damage Locations 21.5.1 Material System and Specimen Design 21.5.2 Measurement of Joint Strength and Determination of Damage Locations 21.5.2.1 Cross-Ply Specimens 21.5.2.2 Quasi-Isotropic Specimens 21.6 Strength Prediction Based on Subcritical Damage Modelling 21.6.1 Validation of Subcritical Damage Predictions 21.6.2 Finite Element Modelling Including Subcritical Damage Planes 21.6.3 Strength Prediction in Cross-Ply Laminates 21.6.4 Strength Prediction in Quasi-Isotropic Laminates 21.7 Conclusions References 22 Interfaces, Cracks and Toughness: City Cars Made from Composites 22.1 Introduction to City Cars 22.2 Composites, Interfaces, Cracks and Toughness 22.3 Mechanics of Crack Stopping and Deflection at Interfaces 22.4 Composite Components in Motor Sport 22.5 New Drivetrains: The Composite Lean Weight Hydrogen Fuel Cell City Car, Microcab 22.6 Composite Construction 22.7 Future Possibilities for Composites in City Car Applications 22.8 Conclusions References Part VI 23 A Virtual Testing Approach for Laminated Composites Based on Micromechanics 23.1 Introduction 23.2 The Reference Virtual Material 23.2.1 The Main Damage Mechanisms 23.2.2 The RVM as a Computational Hybrid Micromechanics Model 23.2.2.1 Basic Aspects 23.2.2.2 Modeling of the Fiber-Matrix Material 23.2.2.3 Modeling of Delamination and Microcracking 23.2.2.4 Fiber Breaking 23.2.2.5 Structure Computation 23.2.3 Toward a Unified Model 23.2.4 Extension 23.3 The Micro-Meso Bridge 23.3.1 The Method 23.3.2 The Tools 23.3.2.1 The Ply Basic Problem 23.3.2.2 The Interface Basic Problem 23.4 The Damage Mesomodel 23.4.1 The Single Layer 23.4.1.1 Diffuse Damage, Microcracking, and Inelasticity 23.4.1.2 Fiber Breaking 23.4.2 The Interface 23.5 Structure Computation 23.5.1 Localization Limiters and Numerical Parameters 23.5.2 Split Detection and Propagation 23.5.3 Applications 23.5.4 Limits 23.6 Conclusion Appendix: The Basic Damage Law References 24 Virtual Testing of Composite Structures: Progress and Challenges in Predicting Damage, Residual Strength and Crashworthiness Nomenclature 24.1 Introduction 24.2 Computational Strategy 24.2.1 Interlaminar Damage Model 24.2.2 Intralaminar Damage Model 24.2.2.1 Fibre-Dominated Failure Modes 24.2.2.2 Non-linear Shear Behaviour 24.2.2.3 Matrix-Dominated Failure Modes 24.2.3 Implementation of Damage Model 24.2.3.1 ABAQUS VUMAT Subroutine 24.2.3.2 Element Deletion Strategy 24.3 Material Characterisation 24.3.1 Interlaminar Fracture Toughness 24.3.2 Intralaminar Fracture Toughness 24.3.3 Non-linear Shear Behaviour 24.4 Predicting Impact Damage and CAI 24.4.1 Finite Element Model 24.4.2 Results 24.5 Modelling Composite Crushing 24.5.1 Crashworthiness Assessment 24.5.2 Crushing of Thermoset Composite Wedge Specimens 24.5.3 Crushing of Corrugated Thermoplastic Composite Specimens 24.5.3.1 Experimental Testing 24.5.3.2 Crushing Damage Mechanisms 24.5.3.3 Finite Element Model 24.5.3.4 Results and Discussion 24.6 Concluding Remarks References 25 Contribution of Virtual Simulation to Industrialisation of Carbon Fibre-Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) Composites for Manufacturing Processes and Mechanical Performance 25.1 Introduction 25.2 Manufacturing Methods and Process Simulation 25.3 FE Analysis Methods 25.4 Fabric Draping 25.5 Fabric Draping: Geometric Methods 25.6 Thermoforming Simulation 25.7 Fabric Draping: FE Simulation 25.8 Chaining Draping of Draping Results 25.9 Mesoscopic Fabric Drape Modelling 25.10 Braiding 25.11 Infusion Analysis 25.12 Failure, Impact and Crash 25.13 Conclusions References Part VII 26 Multi-scale Progressive Failure Modeling: From Nano-structured Carbon Fibers to Textile Composites 26.1 Introduction 26.2 Generation of 3-D Mosaic Chain Models 26.3 General Discretization Approach of Composite Structure 26.4 General 3-D Mosaic Model and Analysis Approach 26.5 Progressive Failure Modeling of 3-D Mosaic Chains 26.6 Nanoscale Progressive Failure Modeling of Carbon Fibers 26.7 Microscale Progressive Failure Modeling of Unidirectional Composites 26.8 Mesoscale Progressive Failure Modeling of Plain Weave Composites 26.9 Mesoscale Progressive Failure Modeling of Non-crimp 3-D Weave Composites 26.10 Conclusions References 27 Textile Structural Composites: From 3-D to 1-D Fiber Architecture 27.1 Introduction 27.1.1 Aerospace Textile Structural Composites 27.1.2 Aircraft Textile Structural Composites 27.1.3 Automotive Textile Structural Composites 27.2 Integrated Design for Manufacturing of Textile Composites 27.2.1 Classification of Textile Preforms 27.2.2 Engineering Parameters of Textile Preforms 27.2.3 The Role of Fiber Architecture in Composite 27.2.3.1 Formability 27.2.3.2 Permeability 27.2.3.3 Properties 27.2.4 Engineering Design of Textile Composites 27.2.4.1 3-D Braided Structure Analysis 27.2.4.2 The Fabric Geometry Model 27.2.4.3 Application of the FGM 27.3 New Frontiers 27.3.1 Low-Cost Carbon Fiber from Renewable Resources 27.3.2 Strong Carbon–Carbon Composite Nanofiber 27.3.3 Smart Composite Nanofiber 27.3.3.1 Ultrasensitive Strain Sensor 27.3.3.2 Piezoelectric Nanowire-Based Force Sensor 27.3.4 Carbon Nanofiber Yarn Assembly 27.3.5 New Preforming Technology: Hexagonal 3-D Braiding 27.4 Summary and Conclusions References 28 Experimental and Multiscale Numerical Studies of Woven Fabric Carbon Composite Cylinder Subjected to Internal Pressure Loading 28.1 Introduction 28.2 Fabrication of Composite Cylinders 28.3 Multiscale Analysis Technique 28.4 Experimental Device 28.5 Results and Discussion 28.6 Conclusions References Part VIII 29 Fatigue of 2D and 3D Carbon-Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Matrix Composites and of a Unitized Polymer/Ceramic Matrix Composite at Elevated Temperature 29.1 Introduction 29.2 Experimental Arrangements 29.2.1 Experimental Materials 29.2.2 Mechanical Testing 29.3 Mechanical Behavior 29.3.1 Tensile Stress–Strain Behavior: Effect of Elevated Temperature 29.3.2 Tension–Tension Fatigue at Elevated Temperature 29.4 Composite Failure: Examination with Optical Microscopy 29.5 Concluding Remarks References 30 Carbon Fibers in Tribo-composites Abbreviations 30.1 Introduction 30.2 Survey on Sliding Wear of Carbon Fiber/Polymer Composites 30.2.1 Typical Filler and Matrix Materials 30.2.2 Carbon Versus Glass Fiber Reinforcements 30.2.3 High-Modulus Versus High-Strength Carbon Fibers 30.2.4 Influence of Fiber Orientation 30.2.5 Abrasion Due to Counterface Roughness 30.2.6 Kinds of Counterface Material 30.2.7 Environmental Effects 30.3 Tribo-composites Containing Carbon Fibers in Combination with Nanofillers 30.3.1 Addition of Ceramic Nanoparticles 30.3.2 Artificial Neural Network Approach 30.3.3 Multifunctionality by Addition of Carbon Nanotubes 30.4 Carbon Fibers Composites for Special Tribo-applications 30.4.1 High-Friction Materials 30.4.2 Friction and Wear of Carbon Fiber/Glass Composites 30.4.3 Friction and Wear of Carbon Fiber/Metal Composites 30.5 Concluding Remarks References Erratum