Solar Thermal Energy

Description

This volume of the Encyclopedia of Sustainability Science and Technology, Second Edition, describes technologies that actively convert solar radiation into useful heat in a temperature range from just above ambient up to more than 1,000°C. Applications cover a broad range of energy services such as space heating, cooking, domestic hot water supply, electrical power generation, and high temperature thermochemical processes. The major developments that have led to currently available technologies for solar thermal energy applications were initiated mainly after the first oil shock in 1973. Solar thermal energy is widely used already for heating purposes (water, space) in the “low” temperature range up to about 100°C employing mainly nonconcentrating collectors, whereas higher temperatures can be achieved with more sophisticated solar collector technologies. Temperatures over 200°C typically require concentrating solar radiation using mirror systems. Several different technologies are described in detail in this volume, including solar collector systems in the lower temperature range, the direct use of solar radiation for food processing, namely cooking and drying, the production of electricity through conversion of solar radiation first to heat, driving a mechanical conversion system coupled to an electric generator, the use of solar radiation to drive chemical processes, and many more. Series Preface Volume Preface Contents About the Editor-in-Chief About the Editors Contributors Part I: Introduction Solar Thermal Energy: Introduction Glossary Section Content Overview Bibliography Solar Thermal Energy: History Glossary Definition of the Subject Introduction Renewable Energy Technologies History of Solar Energy Concentrating System for Power Production Solar Drying Solar Desalination History of Desalination Conclusions References Part II: Solar Thermal Concentrated Systems Estimation of Concentrated Solar Power Potential Glossary Abbreviations Definition of the Subject and its Importance Introduction Worldwide CSP Potential DNI Maps of Different World Regions Assessment Criteria for CSP Potential Analysis Exclusion Criteria DNI Slope of the Terrain Excluded Land Protected Areas Limiting Criteria Land Use Infrastructure (Roads, Power Transmission Lines) Geology and Natural Hazards (Earthquake, Storm, Flood, High Wind Load) Geomorphology/ Soil Characteristics Hydrology/ Water Demand/ Cooling Mode Energy Demand Impact (Acoustic, Visual) Methods and Examples Conclusions Bibliography Parabolic Trough Solar Technology Glossary Definition of the Subject and its Importance Introduction Technology Description PTC Mirror Absorber (Receiver) Performance Properties of Receivers for PTC Support Structure Tracking and Drive Mechanism Foundation and Pylons Heat Transfer Fluid PTC Performance Future Directions Bibliography Primary Literature Books and Reviews Linear Fresnel Collectors Glossary Definition of the Subject and Its Importance Introduction Design of Linear Fresnel Reflectors Reference Area Receiver Design Benefits and Disadvantages Future Directions Bibliography Concentrating Receiver Systems (Solar Power Tower) Glossary Definition of the Subject and Its Importance Introduction Advantages of the Use of CRS for Supply of Energy Concentrating Receiver Systems for Power Production Heliostat Field Heliostat Components Heliostat Types Heliostat Shapes Canted-Glass Mirror Heliostat Stretched-Membrane Focused and Nonfocused Heliostat Flat-Type Single-Mirror Heliostats Heliostat Size Heliostat Field Design Theoretical Considerations Heliostat Aiming Strategies Receiver Direct Absorption Receiver: Falling Particle or Molten Salt Liquid Film Tube Receiver Cavity Receiver Air Receiver Open Volumetric Receiver Pressured Volumetric Receiver Tower Providing Firm and Dispatchable Power Characteristics of Different Heat Transfer Fluids Molten Salt Water/Steam Air Others Increase of Operation Hours of CRS by Storage and Hybridization Storage Hybridization Examples of CRS Plants Research Facilities Solar One Solar Two National Solar Thermal Test Facility CESA-1 Themis CSIRO Solar Research Facility Unit Solar Tower Plant Jülich (STJ) Commercial Sierra SunTower PS10 PS20 Gemasolar Solar Tower Plant Jülich (STJ) Crescent Dunes Solar Energy Project (Tonopah) Ivanpah Solar Electric Generating Station (ISEGS) Ashalim Solar Thermal Power Station (Megalim) NOOR III Khi Solar One Under Construction or Under Development Secondary Uses of CRS Economical Considerations Investment Costs Operation and Maintenance Costs Levelized Electricity Cost Future Cost Development Future Directions Bibliography Primary Literature Books and Reviews Solar Dish Systems Glossary Definition of the Subject Definition of a Solar Dish Origins of Solar Dishes The Challenge of Low Cost Styles of Solar Dishes Evolution of Designs Size Tracking Style Structure Mirror Panels Power Conversion Units Stirling Engines Steam Engines Steam Generation Organic Rankine Cycles Air Brayton Concentrating Photovoltaic (CPV) Thermochemical Energy Storage Dish-Mounted Thermal Storage Central Thermal Storage Cost Reduction Opportunities Future Directions Acknowledgments References Solar Updraft Towers Glossary Definition of the Subject and Its Importance Introduction Solar Updraft Tower Technical Concept Principle Components Collector Glass Roof Designing the Canopy Near the Tower Vacuum-Cleaning the Roof Storage Tower Loads on the Tower Turbines Turbine Layout Airflow Calculations Flow Redirection into the Tower Generator Safety Physical Model Prototype Transferring the Results to Large-Scale Plants Large-Scale Solar Updraft Towers General System Advantages Electricity Generation Costs Future Directions References Primary Literature Books and Reviews Part III: Application of Solar Thermal Concentrated Systems Parabolic Trough and Solar Tower Power Plants, Measuring Systems, Testing, and Monitoring Methods Glossary Definition of the Subject Introduction Site Survey with Weather Sensors Irradiation Measurement and Sunshine Forecast Further Weather Sensors and Measuring Stations for a Site Survey Surveying of the Sunshape Measurement of the Essential Features of Various Key Components Tests in the Mirror Field Inspection of the Geometric Quality of the Mirrors Deflectometry Photogrammetry Laser Scan Concept Inspection of the Quality of Reflection Technique for Measurement of the Orientation of Heliostats Use of Camera Drone for Thermal and Optical Surveys Examination of the Receiver Flux Density Measurement at the Absorber Flux Density Measurement: Measuring Methods on Solar Towers and Solar Ovens Flux Density Measurement: Measuring Methods on Parabolic Trough Systems and Fresnel Mirror Systems Receiver Reflection Method ParaScan Infrared Light Measurement at the Absorber References Dynamical Behavior of CSP Plants Glossary Introduction Dynamic Behavior: A Classification Related to Time Scales Dynamic Behavior of Parabolic Trough Systems Solar Field Temperature Control Solar Field Start-Up Process Coupling of the Solar Field to the Storage and Power Block Dynamic Behavior of Solar Tower Systems General Considerations Model Based Control Methods Operation of Molten Salt Receiver Systems Problematic Cloud Situations Nowcasting Systems Calculation of Annual Energy Production Future Directions Bibliography Solar Simulators Glossary Definition of the Subject Introduction Applications Space Solar Simulators Solar Simulators for PV Cells Solar Simulators for CSP Further Applications Light Sources General Requirements Airmass Spectra Classification of Spectral Matching Power Output Discharge Lamps Carbon Arc Lamp Xenon Short-Arc Lamp Metal Halide Lamp Argon Lamps Tungsten Halogen Lamp Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs) Simulator Design Preliminary Remarks Optical Devices Reflectors Reflective Coating Fresnel Lenses High-Flux Solar Simulators Elliptic Reflector Based Design Fresnel Lens Based Design Low-Flux Solar Simulators Xenon Lamp Based Design LED-Based Design Halogen-LED Hybrid Solar Simulators Flux Measurement and Flux Profiles Flux Measurements Strategies for Setting Up the Required Flux Profile Outlook Bibliography Further Reading Porous Materials for Solar Energy Harvesting, Transformation, and Storage Glossary Definition of the Subject Introduction The Basic Receiver Principles The Basic Receiver/Reactor Principles The Basic Principles of Thermochemical Storage Technology Physical Requirements of Porous Structures for Use as Receivers Porous Structures Applied as Volumetric or Tube Receivers Extruded Silicon Carbide Catalyst Carriers (Hitrec) Additively Manufactured Metals Advanced Cellular Metal Honeycombs Engineered Hybrid Tube Receivers Metal Wire Meshes Ceramic Foams SiC Fiber Mesh Screen Printed Absorber Samples (Direct Typing Process) Material Combinations Overview Porous Structures Used as Receiver/Reactors Porous Structures in Thermochemical Storage Systems Absorber Qualification Physical Restrictions of Volumetric Receivers Experimental Determination of Non-stable Flow Conclusions Nomenclature References Thermal Energy Storage Glossary Definition of the Subject Introduction Principles of Sensible Heat Storage Solid Storage Materials Liquid Storage Materials Applications of Water Storages for Solar Energy Molten Salt Further Liquid Storage Materials Principles of Latent Heat Storage Cold Storage (0 C and Below) Low-Temperature Storage (0-120 C) Salt Hydrates Paraffins Applications for Solar Heating and Cooling High-Temperature PCM Storage (Above 120 C) Heat Transfer Concepts and Composites Principles of Chemical Heat Storage Gas-Solid Dissociation Reactions Catalytic Reactions Thermal Energy Storage for Concentrated Solar Power Classification of Thermal Storage Systems Thermal Energy Storage Concepts Direct Storage of Liquid Working Fluid Direct Storage with Phase Change (Steam Accumulators) Indirect Storage Concepts Indirect Storage in Solid Media Indirect Storage in Liquid Media Indirect Storage with Phase Change Materials Regenerator Storage for Solar Central Receiver Plants Future Directions Bibliography Solar Energy in Thermochemical Processing Glossary Definition of the Subject and Its Importance Introduction Thermodynamics of Solar Thermochemical Conversion Solar Thermochemical Processes Solar Production of Fuels Solar Production of Metals Solar Production of H2/CO from H2O/CO2 Splitting and/or Fossil Fuels Solar Production of H2 from Fossil Fuels Solar Production of H2 from H2S Solar Production of Material Commodities Solar Metals and Metal Oxides, Metallic Carbides, and Nitrides Solar Fullerenes and Carbon Nanotubes Solar Lime and Cement Solar Thermal Recycling of Hazardous Waste Materials Life Cycle and Economic Analysis Future Directions Note Nomenclature Bibliography Primary Literature Books and Reviews Part IV: Non-concentrating Solar Thermal Systems and Their Application Solar Collectors, Non-concentrating Glossary Definition of the Subject Introduction Functioning of a Solar Collector Construction of Solar Thermal Collectors Absorber Absorber Coating: Photo Thermal Layer Absorber Material Heat Removal Construction Transparent Cover Other Collector Housing Elements Insulation Reflector Collector Types Noncovered Flat Plate Collectors: WISC Covered Liquid-Heating Flat-Plate Collectors Evacuated Tube Collectors Air-Heating Collectors Future Directions Bibliography Solar Cookers and Dryers to Conserve Human and Planet Health Glossary Definition of the Subject Introduction Solar Driers Direct Solar Dryer Indirect Solar Drier Combined Solar Dryer Cooking of Food Energy and Temperature Required for Cooking History of Solar Cooking Different Types of Cookers Hot-Box-Type Cookers Concentrating-Type Cookers Vapor-Type Cookers Hybrid Cookers Energy Storage Cookers Author´s Work: Personal Interest in Solar Cooking Food Warmer Simple Hot Box Oven Concentrating Cooker Some Problems Hybrid Cookers (Sun - AC Electricity) Hybrid Cooker (Sun - Gas) Electric Storage Models Solar-Electric Microwave Oven Portable 12-VDC Cooker Solar Multi-voltage Cooker Multipurpose Device Solar Cooker Cum Water Heater Solar Cooker Cum Dryer Multipurpose and Hybrid Food Processor (Solar-Electric 110-VAC Cooker/Water, Pasteurizer/Still, and Dryer) Two Compartments Oven Some Models of Other Authors Cook Kit Model Hybrid Concentrating Model Advantages Energy Saving Cash Saving Human Health Social Aspects Environmental Aspects Other Uses of Solar Cooker Number of Solar Cookers Globally What Can Be Done to Extend the Use of Solar Cookers Conclusions Future Directions Bibliography Primary Literature Books and Reviews Solar Cooling Systems Glossary Definition of the Subject and Its Importance Introduction Physical Principles Conversion Chains Thermodynamic Analysis of Thermally Driven Chillers Common System Designs Closed Absorption Systems Closed Adsorption Systems Open Solid Desiccant Systems Open Liquid Desiccant Systems Subsystems and Further Equipment Components Energy and Cost Performance Energy Balance Economical Assessment Methodology of Economical Assessment - An Exemplary Simulation Study System Experiences Summary of Experiences Future Directions Bibliography Primary Literature Books and Reviews Solar Detoxification and Disinfection of Water Glossary Definition of the Subject and Its Importance Introduction Solar TiO2 (Heterogeneous) Photocatalysis Applied to Water Decontamination Fundamental Parameters Affecting Kinetics in Solar TiO2 (Heterogeneous) Photocatalysis Applied to Water Decontamination Mass of Catalyst pH Temperature Radiant Flux Concentration of Oxygen Solar Photo-Fenton Effect of pH Effect of Iron Concentration and Iron Source Effect of Temperature Solar Disinfection and Photocatalytic Disinfection Solar Disinfection Solar Photocatalytic Disinfection Solar Hardware for Water Decontamination and Disinfection Future Directions Bibliography Primary Literature Books and Reviews Part V: Common Closing Subject Solar Thermal Systems: Life Cycle Assessment Glossary Definition of the Subject Introduction to LCA: What Is It, What Does It Consider, Why Is It So Important Introduction to the LCA Methodology for Multicriteria Analysis (MCA) Considerations in LCA History of LCA Significance and Limitations of LCA LCA Focus LCA for CSP LCA for Parabolic Trough Collector Systems LCA for Solar Tower Systems LCA for Solar Thermal Systems at Low Temperature LCA Comparison Results to Other Renewable Systems Conclusions Bibliography Index