Polylactic Acid: A Practical Guide for the Processing, Manufacturing, and Applications of PLA

Description

Polylactic Acid: A Practical Guide for the Processing, Manufacturing, and Applications of PLA, Second Edition, provides a practical guide for engineers and scientists working in PLA and on the development of emerging new products. The current market situation for PLA and biodegradable polymers is described, along with applications across a range of market sectors. In addition, the mechanical, chemical, thermal, rheology and degradation properties are included. Updates include new chapters covering various processing methods, as well as recycling methods, and additives and processing aids. New applications cover a range of products (including 3D Printing), and an environmental assessment, including regulatory aspects. The book is not only a useful introduction to this topic, but also a practical, readily applicable reference book that will support decision-making in the plastics industry. Cover......Page 1 PLASTICS DESIGN LIBRARY (PDL) PDL HANDBOOK SERIES......Page 3 Polylactic Acid: Practical Guide for the Processing, Manufacturing, and Applications of PLA ......Page 4 Copyright......Page 5 Dedication......Page 6 About the Authors......Page 7 Preface......Page 8 1.1 Background to Biodegradable Polymers......Page 10 1.2 Market Potential of Biodegradable Polymers and Polylactic Acid......Page 20 1.3.1 Polylactic Acid for Domestic Applications......Page 37 1.3.2 Polylactic Acid and Copolymers for Biomedical Applications......Page 50 References......Page 58 2.1 Introduction......Page 62 2.2 Lactic Acid Production......Page 63 2.2.1 Laboratory-Scale Production of Lactic Acid......Page 73 2.3 Lactide and Poly(Lactic Acid) Production......Page 74 2.3.1 Review of Lactide Production Technology......Page 75 2.3.2 Polymerization and Copolymerization of Lactide......Page 80 2.3.3 Lactide Copolymer......Page 84 2.3.4 Quality Control......Page 85 2.3.5 Quantification of Residual Lactide in Poly(Lactic Acid) (NatureWorks L.L.C., 2010b)......Page 86 2.3.5.1 Calculations......Page 88 2.3.6 Quantification of d-Lactic Acid Content in Poly(Lactic Acid) (NatureWorks L.L.C., 2010a)......Page 89 2.4.1 Direct Polycondensation Route......Page 90 2.4.2 Ring-Opening Polymerization Route......Page 93 References......Page 101 Further Reading......Page 104 3.1 Introduction......Page 105 3.2 Thermal Transition and Crystallization of Poly(Lactic Acid)......Page 107 3.2.1 Effect of Crystallization Temperature on Crystal Modifications......Page 118 3.2.2 Effect of Nucleating Agents on Crystallization of Poly(Lactic Acid)......Page 122 3.3 Thermal Decomposition......Page 124 3.4 Heat Capacity, Thermal Conductivity, and Pressure–Volume–Temperature of Poly(Lactic Acid)......Page 131 References......Page 137 4.1 Introduction......Page 142 4.2 Stereochemistry of Poly(Lactic Acid)......Page 144 4.3.1 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy......Page 153 4.3.2 Infrared Spectroscopy......Page 155 4.4 Solubility and Barrier Properties of Poly(Lactic Acid)......Page 161 4.4.1 Solubility of Polylactic Acid......Page 162 4.4.2 Permeability of Poly(Lactic Acid)......Page 164 References......Page 170 5.1 Introduction......Page 174 5.2 Effect of Crystallinity and Molecular Weight on the Mechanical Properties of Poly(Lactic Acid)......Page 176 5.3 Effect of Modifiers/Plasticizers on Poly(Lactic Acid)......Page 179 5.4 Polymer Blends of Poly(Lactic Acid)......Page 186 5.4.1 Poly(Lactic Acid) and Polycaprolactone Blend......Page 187 5.5 Blends of Polylactide With Degradable or Partially Degradable Polymers......Page 192 5.5.1 Blends of Polylactide and Polyhydroxyalkanoates......Page 195 5.5.2 Poly(Lactic Acid) Blends With Nondegradable Polymers......Page 199 References......Page 206 6.1 Introduction......Page 210 6.2 Rheological Properties of Poly(Lactic Acid)......Page 211 6.3 Effects of Molecular Weight......Page 214 6.4 Effects of Branching......Page 218 6.5 Extensional Viscosity......Page 220 6.7.1 Poly(Lactic Acid)/Poly(Butylene Adipate-co-Terephthalate) Blend......Page 221 6.7.2 Blend With Layered Silicate Nanocomposites......Page 224 6.7.3 Poly(Lactic Acid)/Polystyrene Blend......Page 226 References......Page 230 7.1 Introduction......Page 233 7.2 Factors Affecting Poly(Lactic Acid) Degradation......Page 234 7.3 Hydrolytic and Enzymatic Degradation of Poly(Lactic Acid)......Page 240 7.4 Environmental Degradation of Poly(Lactic Acid)......Page 249 7.5 Thermal Degradation of Poly(Lactic Acid)......Page 261 7.6 Flame Resistance of Poly(Lactic Acid)......Page 269 References......Page 275 8.1 Limitations of Poly(Lactic Acid) in Processing and Applications......Page 279 8.2.1 Reinforcing Fillers......Page 282 8.3 Improved Heat Deflection Temperature and Heat Resistance......Page 292 8.3.1 The Addition of Nucleation Agents......Page 293 8.3.2 Blending of Poly(Lactic Acid) With Heat Resistance Polymers......Page 296 8.3.3 Compounding Poly(Lactic Acid) Composites With Nano-Scale Natural Fibers......Page 297 8.4 Flow Enhancement, Melt Strength, Faster Molding Time......Page 298 8.4.1 Cross-Linking Agents......Page 299 8.4.3 Blending With Other Polymers......Page 300 8.4.4 Plasticizers......Page 301 8.5.1 Antistatic Agents......Page 302 8.5.2 Impact Modifier......Page 303 8.5.3 Fiber Compatibilizer/Coupling Agents......Page 305 8.6 Conclusion......Page 306 References......Page 307 Further Reading......Page 311 9.1 Extrusion......Page 312 9.2 Blow Molding......Page 314 9.3 Injection Molding......Page 317 9.4 Thermoforming......Page 319 9.5.1 3D Printing......Page 321 9.5.2 Electron Beam Irradiation......Page 324 9.6 Recycling Methods and Sustainability of Poly(Lactic Acid) and Its Composites......Page 325 9.7 Conclusion......Page 327 References......Page 328 10.1 Introduction......Page 330 10.2.1 Drying......Page 331 10.2.2 Storage......Page 332 10.2.3 Purging......Page 333 10.3 Comparison of Injection Molding Poly(Lactic Acid) and Other Polymers......Page 334 10.4.1 Printing of Poly(Lactic Acid)......Page 342 10.4.2 Three-Dimensional Printing of Poly(Lactic Acid) for Medical Applications......Page 345 10.5 Conclusion......Page 347 References......Page 349 11.1 Introduction......Page 351 11.2 Poly(Lactic Acid) for Domestic Applications......Page 352 11.5 Conclusion......Page 366 References......Page 367 12.1 Introduction......Page 368 12.2 Poly(Lactic Acid) Eco-profile and Comparisons With Other Materials......Page 369 12.3 Environmental Profile for Poly(Lactic Acid) Food Packaging and Global Warming Potential......Page 379 12.4 List of International Standards for Biodegradable Polymeric Materials......Page 383 12.5 Conclusion......Page 388 References......Page 389 Further Reading......Page 390 Index......Page 391 Back Cover......Page 408