Responding to Environmental Crimes: Lessons from New Zealand

Description

This book provides a critical study of environmental regulation and its enforcement in New Zealand, situated within green criminology. It seeks to address the question of whether the offences in the Resource Management Act 1991 are 'working', by drawing on a range of sources including: central government data, local government policies and reports on enforcement, information requests of councils, studies of local authority enforcement behaviour and case law to. Through highly layered and richly textured analysis, the project exposes the problems that can arise when an expansive approach is taken to offences, penalties and institutional arrangements in an environmental regulatory statute. It emphasizes how discussions of harm and what should be unlawful will ensure that law-makers' enforcement tools will align with their goals for punishment. It examines higher-level issues such as ‘wrongfulness’ and ‘criminality’ in the environmental regulatory context and explores the relevance of its findings to jurisdictions outside of New Zealand. It also discusses the pros and cons of criminalisation and punishment versus restoration. It speaks to those interested in green criminology, regulatory compliance and enforcement, and applications of criminal law. Preface Contents List of Figures Part I Setting the Scene 1 Introduction Introducing the Case Study The Case Study and Green Criminology Outline of the Book References Part II Establishing the Framework for Assessment 2 The RMA’s Offences and Their Context Regulation and the RMA The RMA’s Offences, Penalties and Institutional Arrangements for Prosecuting International Comparisons References 3 Regulatory Enforcement and the Criminal Law Regulatory Enforcement Theory Reasons for Compliance and Non-compliance Dealing with Non-compliance Primary Rationale for Imposing Sanctions: Deterrence Criminal Law Theory Primary Rationale for Imposing Sanctions: Desert When and How to Prosecute Employment and Drafting of Offences The Framework for Assessment References Part III The Case Study 4 Are the RMA’s Offences Effective? Desert, Deterrence or Something Else? Calculating Deterrence Severity Fines Non-monetary and Alternative/Additional Sentences Convictions and Informal Penalties Certainty Detection of Breaches Formal Enforcement Action (Successful) Prosecution Conclusion References 5 Explaining the Lack of Effectiveness: Constraints and Choices Why Low Certainty? Deprioritisation of Compliance, Monitoring and Enforcement High Net Cost and Low Political Palatability of Prosecution Impracticality of Public Participation Why No More Than Moderate Severity? Restrictions on Fine Levels A Preference for “Compensatory” Sentences No Benefit from Using Convictions and Imposing Informal Penalties Conclusion References 6 Are the RMA’s Offences Being Used Appropriately? Choosing What Types of Cases to Prosecute Resolving Cases in Court Resolving Cases Out of Court Conclusion References 7 Explaining the Inappropriate Use: Form Versus Substance Expansive Offences and Limited Defences A Focus on Insurable, Compensatory Monetary Penalties Sui Generis Institutional Arrangements for Prosecuting Conclusion References Part IV Concluding 8 Lessons Learned Lesson 1—Align the Form and Substance of Offences, Penalties and Institutional Arrangements for Prosecuting Lesson 2—Understand the Criminal Law in Order to Collect Good Data Lesson 3—The Criminal Law Struggles to Deter Implications and Concluding Comments References Index