Solar Cooling Technologies

Description

Solar Cooling Technologies presents a detailed study of the potential technologies for coupling solar energy and cooling systems. It starts with the theoretical background on the refrigeration cycles and their thermodynamic analysis followed by a description of different technologies for solar cooling. Each technology is explained individually and compared directly with a techno-economic analysis on a small-scale basis with focus on technical aspects. The technical description of the available solar collectors and how the well-established adsorption and absorption cycles can be coupled with solar collectors and their potential in terms of efficiency and ability, is discussed. Cover......Page 1 Half Title......Page 2 Title Page......Page 4 Copyright Page......Page 5 Table of Contents......Page 6 Preface ......Page 12 Authors ......Page 14 1.1 Global Energy Production and Resources ......Page 16 1.2.1 Solar-Generated Electricity ......Page 17 1.2.2 Solar Thermal Energy ......Page 18 1.2.3 Cogeneration of Solar Electricity and Heat ......Page 20 1.2.4 Solar Energy Storage ......Page 21 1.3 Refrigeration Applications ......Page 22 1.3.1 Historical Overview ......Page 23 1.4 Refrigerants ......Page 25 1.4.1 Safety, Toxicity, and Flammability ......Page 26 1.4.2 Regulations and Phase Out ......Page 27 1.4.3 Overview of Common Refrigerants and Their Basic Properties ......Page 29 1.4.4 Optimal Properties of Refrigerants ......Page 32 1.5 Solar Cooling Status ......Page 33 Nomenclature ......Page 36 References ......Page 37 2.1 Carnot Cycle for Refrigeration ......Page 42 2.2 The Main Components of Mechanical Refrigeration ......Page 45 2.2.1 Compressor ......Page 46 2.2.1.1 Tutorial on the Compressor ......Page 48 2.2.2 Condenser ......Page 50 2.2.2.1 Tutorial on the Condenser ......Page 53 2.2.3 Evaporator ......Page 55 2.2.4 Throttling Device ......Page 57 2.3 The Vapor Compression Cycle ......Page 58 2.3.1 Actual Vapor Compression Cycle ......Page 60 2.3.3 Multi-Stage and Cascade Vapor Compression Systems ......Page 61 2.3.4 Tutorial on the Vapor Compression Cycle ......Page 62 2.4 Absorption Cooling Cycle ......Page 66 2.4.2 Energy Considerations for an Absorption Cycle ......Page 68 2.4.3 Exergy Considerations ......Page 72 2.4.4 Tutorial on the Absorption Cycle ......Page 73 2.5 Adsorption Cooling Cycle ......Page 78 2.5.1 Energy and Exergy Analysis of the Adsorption Cycle ......Page 80 2.6 Desiccant Cooling Cycle ......Page 81 2.6.1 Energy Considerations for Desiccant Cooling ......Page 83 2.7 Organic Rankine Cycles ......Page 85 2.7.1 Energy and Exergy Considerations for the ORC ......Page 86 2.7.1.1 Tutorial on the ORC ......Page 88 2.8 Supercritical CO2 Cycle ......Page 90 Nomenclature ......Page 91 References ......Page 94 Chapter 3: Solar Thermal Collectors ......Page 96 3.1.1 Flat-Plate Collectors ......Page 97 3.1.2 Evacuated Tube Collectors ......Page 103 3.1.3 Hybrid PV-Thermal Collectors (PVT) ......Page 105 3.2.1 Non-Imaging Concentrating Collectors ......Page 109 3.2.2 Imaging Concentrating Collectors ......Page 111 3.2.2.1 Parabolic Trough Collectors ......Page 114 3.2.2.2 Linear Fresnel Reflectors ......Page 117 3.2.2.3 Central Tower Receivers (CTR) ......Page 119 3.2.2.4 Paraboloidal Dish Reflectors ......Page 121 3.3.1.1 Water Heating Systems ......Page 123 3.3.1.2 Space Heating Systems ......Page 125 3.3.1.3 Space Cooling and Refrigeration Systems ......Page 126 3.3.1.4 Water Desalination Systems ......Page 128 3.3.2.1 Industrial Process Heat Systems ......Page 132 3.3.2.2 Solar Thermal Power Generation Systems ......Page 133 3.3.2.3 Material Processing and Thermochemical Fuel Production Systems ......Page 134 Nomenclature ......Page 136 References ......Page 137 4.1 Photovoltaic Systems ......Page 144 4.1.1 PV Cell Materials ......Page 145 4.2 Solar Electric Chillers ......Page 148 4.3 Photovoltaic-Thermal Systems ......Page 158 Nomenclature ......Page 166 References ......Page 167 5.1.1 Working Pairs ......Page 172 5.1.2 Absorption Units ......Page 174 5.1.3 Theoretical Investigations on Absorption Units ......Page 176 5.1.4 Experimental Investigations on Absorption Units ......Page 181 5.1.5 Market Status ......Page 184 5.2.1 Theoretical Investigations on Solar Absorption Cooling ......Page 187 5.2.2 Dynamic Simulations of Solar Absorption Cooling Systems ......Page 196 5.2.3 Performance Data from Experimental Setups ......Page 197 5.2.4 Rethymno Village Hotel Solar Absorption System ......Page 208 5.2.6 Centre for Renewable Energy Sources and Saving Solar Cooling System ......Page 210 5.2.7 ISI Pergine Business Center ......Page 213 5.2.8 GICB Building Solar Cooling Application ......Page 216 5.2.9 Agència de la Salut Pública ......Page 217 5.2.10 Inditex Arteixo Offices ......Page 218 5.2.11 The Technical College for Engineering in Butzbach ......Page 219 5.2.12 The Jiangmen Solar Absorption System ......Page 220 5.3.1.1 Generator ......Page 222 5.3.1.2 Absorber ......Page 223 5.3.1.3 Condenser ......Page 224 5.3.1.4 Evaporator ......Page 225 5.3.1.7 System Pressures ......Page 226 5.3.1.8 Overall Masses ......Page 227 Nomenclature ......Page 228 References ......Page 230 6.1.1 Physical Adsorbents ......Page 240 6.1.2 Chemical Adsorbents ......Page 242 6.1.3 Composite Adsorbents ......Page 243 6.2 Adsorption Refrigerants ......Page 244 6.3.3 Activated Carbon-Ammonia ......Page 245 6.3.5 Working Pair Comparison Investigations ......Page 246 6.4 Adsorption Chiller Applications ......Page 248 6.5 Solar Cooling with Adsorption Chillers ......Page 257 6.7.1 Basic Assumptions ......Page 266 6.7.3 Evaporator ......Page 272 6.7.6 Condenser ......Page 273 6.7.7 Performance Indicators ......Page 274 6.8 Model Solution and Results ......Page 275 6.9.1.4 Phase 4 ......Page 278 6.9.1.5 Performance Data ......Page 279 6.9.2 The University of Freiburg Hospital Case ......Page 280 6.9.3 Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Technology—Freiburg, Germany ......Page 281 Nomenclature ......Page 282 References ......Page 284 7.1.2 Ejector Cooling ......Page 292 7.1.3 Stirling Cooling ......Page 298 7.1.4 Electrochemical Cooling ......Page 299 7.2.1 Desiccant-Brayton Cascade Cycle ......Page 300 7.2.2 Desiccant-Vapor Compression Cycle ......Page 301 7.2.3 Absorption-Rankine Cycle ......Page 302 7.2.4 Ejector-VCC Hybrid System ......Page 303 7.2.5 Ejector-Absorption Cycle ......Page 305 7.2.6 Absorption-Compressor Cycle ......Page 309 7.2.7 Electrochemical-Absorption Cycle ......Page 311 7.3.1 Solar Ejector-VCC Coupling ......Page 313 7.3.2 Solar Ejector-Rankine Cycle ......Page 315 7.3.4 Solar Absorption-Rankine Cycle ......Page 317 7.3.5 Solar Absorption-VCC Coupling ......Page 318 7.3.7 Solar Adsorption-Ejector ......Page 320 7.3.8 Solar Adsorption-Desiccant Cooling Systems ......Page 323 Nomenclature ......Page 325 References ......Page 326 8.1 Introduction ......Page 332 8.2 Literature Review ......Page 333 8.3 Case Study: The BioTRIC Trigeneration System ......Page 344 Nomenclature ......Page 349 References ......Page 350 9.1 Evaporative Cooling ......Page 354 9.1.1 Direct Evaporative Cooling ......Page 355 9.1.2 Indirect Evaporative Cooling ......Page 356 9.2.1 Desiccant Wheel ......Page 357 9.2.2 Packed Bed ......Page 358 9.2.5 Indirect Contact Dehumidifiers/Regenerators ......Page 359 9.3 Solid Desiccant Cooling ......Page 360 9.3.4 Investigations on Solid Desiccant Cooling ......Page 361 9.4 Liquid Desiccant Cooling ......Page 363 9.4.1 Investigations on Liquid Desiccant Cooling ......Page 365 9.5.1 Market Status ......Page 366 9.5.2 Theoretical and Experimental Investigations on Solar Desiccant Cooling ......Page 367 9.6.1 Ökopark Hartberg Case ......Page 373 9.6.2 Ineti Research Building ......Page 374 Nomenclature ......Page 376 References ......Page 377 Chapter 10: Thermal Energy Storage ......Page 382 10.1 Sensible Thermal Energy Storage ......Page 383 10.1.1.1 Water ......Page 385 10.1.2.1 Packed Bed Storage ......Page 388 10.1.2.2 Borehole Thermal Energy Storage ......Page 389 10.2 Latent Energy Storage (LTES) ......Page 390 10.2.1 Phase Change Materials Classification and Properties ......Page 391 10.2.2 Containment of Phase Change Materials ......Page 393 10.2.3.1 Micro- and Nano-Encapsulation ......Page 394 10.2.3.3 Insertion of High-Conductivity Materials ......Page 395 10.2.3.4 Impregnation of High-Conductivity Porous Structures ......Page 396 10.2.3.5 Cascaded PCM Storage Systems ......Page 397 10.3 Thermochemical Energy Storage (TCS) ......Page 398 10.3.1 Chemical Sorption Processes ......Page 399 10.3.2 Chemical Reaction Processes ......Page 400 Nomenclature ......Page 403 References ......Page 404 11.1 Introduction ......Page 408 11.2 Overview of Solar Cooling Technologies ......Page 409 11.3 Literature Review of Solar Cooling Economic Evaluation Studies ......Page 415 11.4 Compilation of Cost Data for Solar Cooling Technologies ......Page 423 11.5.1 System Description and Modeling ......Page 426 11.5.1.1 Step 1. Selection of Geographical Location and Building Types, Calculation of Cooling Loads ......Page 427 11.5.1.2 Step 2. Modeling and Sizing of the Solar Cooling Systems ......Page 428 11.5.2 Economic Evaluation Methodology ......Page 432 11.5.3.1 Optimization Results ......Page 438 11.5.3.2 Parametric Analyses ......Page 442 11.6 Conclusions ......Page 444 Nomenclature ......Page 445 References ......Page 446 Index ......Page 450