International Conflict and Security Law: A Research Handbook

Description

This unique two-volume book covers virtually the whole spectrum of international conflict and security law. It proceeds from values protected by international law (Part I), through substantive rules in which these values are embodied (Part II), to international and domestic institutions that enforce the law (Part III). It subsequently deals with current challenges in the application of rules of international conflict and security law (Part IV), and crimes as the most serious violations of those rules (Part V). Finally, in the section on case studies (Part VI), lessons learnt from a number of conflict situations are discussed. Written by an international team of experts representing all the major legal systems of the world, the book is intended as a reference work for students and researchers, domestic and international judges, as well as for legal advisers to governments and international and non-governmental organisations. Foreword Preface Contents Editors and Contributors Abbreviations Part I Protected Values 1 Humanity 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Brief Observations on the Role of the Concept of Humanity in International Law 1.3 Humanity as ‘Humanness’ and International Criminal Law 1.3.1 Conceptual Aspects: Content and Constituent Elements 1.3.2 Normative Aspects: Protected Legal Interest 1.4 Humanness and the Principle of Humanity in International Humanitarian Law 1.5 Humanity in International Human Rights Law: Human Dignity as Its Manifestation 1.6 Conclusion References 2 Self-determination of Peoples 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Self-determination as a Value 2.3 Historical Transformations of the Principle and the Mythology of Self-determination 2.4 Self-determination in Two Post-War Movements 2.5 The Third Movement: Self-determination as a Universal Moral Value and the Theories of Secession 2.5.1 Choice Theory 2.5.2 The Nationalist Theories 2.5.3 Just Cause Theories 2.6 The Critique of the Right to Self-determination and the Possibility of Further Developments 2.6.1 What Comprises a People? 2.6.2 The Critique of the Language of Rights 2.6.3 The Return of the Great Powers Rule 2.7 Conclusion References 3 The International Rule of Law 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Delineating the International Rule of Law 3.3 The International Rule of Law, International Legality, and Values of Humanity 3.3.1 Formal Side of the International Rule of Law 3.3.2 The International Rule of Law and Global Values 3.4 The International Rule of Law in Practice: Conflict and Security Context 3.4.1 The Use of Force and the Conduct of Hostilities 3.4.2 Issues of Transparency and Accountability 3.4.3 Issues of Compliance with Substantive Values Shared by the International Community 3.5 Conclusion References 4 The Common Heritage of Mankind 4.1 Introduction 4.2 The Genesis of the Common Heritage of Mankind Principle in International Law 4.3 The Normative Nature of the Common Heritage of Mankind Principle 4.4 The Elements of the Common Heritage of Mankind Principle 4.4.1 Prohibition of Private and Public Appropriation or Sovereignty 4.4.2 Designation for Peaceful Uses 4.4.3 Equitable Distribution of Benefits 4.4.4 Concerted Management and Exploitation by All Nations 4.5 Recent Developments and the Future of the Common Heritage of Mankind Principle 4.6 Conclusion References 5 Human Rights: Between Universalism and Relativism 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Universality and Cultural Relativism: Human Rights Law as a Battleground 5.2.1 The Principle of Universality of Human Rights 5.2.2 Questioning Universality 5.3 Contesting the Liberal Model 5.3.1 Shades of Disagreement Within the International Community 5.3.2 The Issue with the Liberal World Order 5.4 Transcending the Tensions: New Developments Resulting from Current Challenges and Possible Ways Forward 5.4.1 Accommodating Universalism 5.4.2 Accepting Cultural Relativism Within Universalism 5.5 Conclusion References Part II Law 6 The Use of Force in International Law 6.1 Introduction 6.2 The Use of Force Regime Under the League of Nations 6.3 The Use of Force Regime Under the United Nations 6.4 Exceptions to the Prohibition on the Use of Force 6.4.1 General Observations 6.4.2 Collective Security Measures 6.4.3 The Right to Self-defence 6.5 Conclusion References 7 The UN Security Council: From Preserving State Sovereignty to Protecting Humanity 7.1 Introduction 7.2 The Security Council’s Practice Unpacked (1946–2017) 7.2.1 Tracing International Law in the Text of Resolutions 7.2.2 Significance and Limits of the Thematic Resolutions 7.3 The Security Council and the International Rule of Law 7.4 Conclusion References 8 UN Security Council Sanctions and International Peace and Security: Context, Controversies and (Legal) Challenges 8.1 Introduction 8.2 The Nature of Security Council Sanctions 8.2.1 Terminological Considerations 8.2.2 Article 41 in Context 8.3 From Blanket to (Not So) Smart Sanctions 8.4 (Individual) Rights and (UN) Responsibilities 8.4.1 Specific Rights Engaged 8.4.2 Legal Limitations on Security Council Sanctions 8.5 Challenging Sanctions Inside and Outside the Courtroom 8.5.1 The ICJ 8.5.2 Regional and Domestic Courts 8.5.3 The Ombudsperson Procedure 8.6 Conclusion References 9 Peace(keeping) Operations: Soldiers Without Enemies? 9.1 Introduction 9.2 The UN Charter Framework and the Necessity of Security Council Authorisation 9.2.1 The Pacific Settlement of Disputes|Chapter VI 9.2.2 Authorising Enforcement Action|Chapter VII 9.2.3 Innovation Through Straddling the Divide|Chapter VI½ 9.3 Peacekeeping Operations—An Overview 9.3.1 Terminology 9.3.2 Underlying Principles 9.3.3 Legal Basis 9.3.4 How is a Peacekeeping Operation Created? 9.3.5 The Evolution Post-Cold War 9.4 What are the Next Challenges? 9.4.1 Proposals for Change 9.4.2 What is the Future of Peace Operations? 9.5 Conclusion References 10 The Status of Forces Agreements 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Historical Overview 10.2.1 Introduction 10.2.2 19th and 20th Century General Practice 10.2.3 NATO Status of Forces Agreement 10.2.4 Status of Forces and Crisis Management Operations 10.3 International Law Perspective 10.3.1 Introduction 10.3.2 Jurisdiction of States over Armed Forces Personnel Stationed Abroad 10.3.3 Immunity of State Officials 10.4 Operational Law Perspective 10.4.1 Introduction 10.4.2 Military Operational Law 10.4.3 Operational Law Perspective on SOFAs 10.5 Synthesis and Conclusion References 11 International Human Rights Law 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Civil and Political Rights 11.3 Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 11.4 Limitations and Derogations 11.5 The UN Human Rights System 11.5.1 Treaty Bodies 11.5.2 Human Rights Council 11.5.3 Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights 11.6 Extraterritorial Application of Human Rights 11.7 Conflict- and Security-Related Human Rights Case Studies 11.7.1 Right to Life 11.7.2 Cultural Rights 11.8 Conclusion References 12 Direct Participation in Hostilities 12.1 Introduction 12.2 The Emergence of DPH in Treaty Law 12.3 Treaties, Commentaries, Reports and Cases 12.3.1 The ICRC Customary Study on IHL and DPH 12.4 The Interpretive Guidance on the Notion of DPH—Introductory Comments 12.4.1 Temporal Scope of the Loss of Protection 12.4.2 The Interpretive Guidance on the Notion of DPH—Elements of DPH 12.4.3 Threshold of Harm 12.4.4 Direct Causation 12.4.5 Belligerent Nexus 12.4.6 Beginning and End of DPH 12.4.7 Precautions and Presumptions in Situations of Doubt 12.4.8 Restraints on the Use of Force in Direct Attack 12.4.9 Consequences of Regaining Civilian Protection 12.4.10 Conclusion to the Interpretive Guidance 12.5 The Application of DPH by the ICC in Ntaganda in 2019 12.6 Conclusion References 13 The Conduct of Hostilities 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Targeting 13.3 Fundamental Rules of the Conduct of Hostilities 13.3.1 Distinction 13.3.2 Precautions 13.3.3 Proportionality 13.4 Specific Prohibitions and Restrictions 13.5 Conclusion References 14 Chemical Weapons 14.1 Introduction 14.2 A Short Historic Overview of the Use of Chemical Weapons 14.3 Law Regulating the Use of Chemical Weapons 14.3.1 IHL Principles Regulating the Use of Chemical Weapons 14.3.2 Arms Control Law Regulating Chemical Weapons 14.4 Biological Weapons 14.5 Conclusion References 15 Nuclear Weapons 15.1 Introduction 15.2 What is a Nuclear Weapon? 15.3 Existing International Legal Framework 15.3.1 Use of Nuclear Weapons 15.3.2 Non-proliferation of Nuclear Weapons 15.3.3 Advisory Opinion of the International Court of Justice 15.4 Nuclear Weapons and Relevant Specific Rules and Principles of International Law 15.4.1 Jus ad bellum 15.4.2 Jus in bello 15.4.3 International Criminal Law 15.4.4 International Human Rights Law 15.5 Conclusion References 16 Blinding Laser Weapons 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Protocol on Blinding Laser Weapons 16.2.1 General Provisions and Scope of Application of Protocol IV 16.2.2 Question of Interpretation of Certain Articles of Protocol IV 16.3 Use of Laser Weapons with Consequences for Human Vision 16.4 Conclusion References 17 Fuel Air Explosive Weapons 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Principle of Action of Fuel Air Explosive Weapons 17.3 Necessity of International Legal Regulation 17.3.1 Indiscriminate Effect 17.3.2 Superfluous Injury and Excessive Suffering 17.3.3 Widespread, Long-term and Severe Damage to the Natural Environment 17.4 Conclusion References 18 Current Issues of Hague Law 18.1 Introduction 18.2 Depleted Uranium Ammunition 18.3 Dum-dum Bullets: Modern Aspects References 19 Military Space Operations 19.1 Introduction 19.2 Defining Military Space Operations 19.3 International Space Law 19.3.1 No General Prohibition of Military Space Operations 19.3.2 Specific Restrictions on Military Space Operations 19.3.3 Interaction Between Space Law and Other Areas of International Law 19.4 International Law on the Use of Force 19.4.1 Use of Force 19.4.2 Threat to Use Force 19.4.3 Armed Attack and Self-defence 19.5 International Humanitarian Law 19.5.1 Distinction 19.5.2 Proportionality 19.5.3 Precautions 19.6 Conclusion References 20 The Protection of the Environment and Natural Resources in Armed Conflict 20.1 Introduction 20.2 A Brief History of the Environmental Consequences of Armed Conflict 20.3 Relevant Treaty-based International Law 20.3.1 Additional Protocol I 20.3.2 The Environmental Modification Convention 20.3.3 Statute of the International Criminal Court 20.3.4 Common Article 3 20.3.5 Additional Protocol II 20.4 International Jurisprudence 20.4.1 International Military Tribunals at Nuremberg 20.4.2 International Court of Justice 20.4.3 United Nations Compensation Commission 20.5 Future Developments 20.6 Conclusion References 21 The Protection of Cultural Property in Armed Conflict and Occupation 21.1 Introduction 21.2 Historical Overview 21.2.1 Plunder and Destruction of Cultural Property in History 21.2.2 The Intellectual Change as Introduced by Modern Legal Thinkers 21.3 The Legal Framework Applicable to the Protection of Cultural Heritage 21.3.1 The IV 1907 Hague Regulations 21.3.2 The Roerich Pact 21.3.3 The 1954 Hague Convention 21.4 The Regime Applicable During Occupation 21.4.1 1907 Hague Regulations 21.4.2 1954 Hague Convention and 1999 Second Protocol 21.4.3 1954 First Protocol 21.5 UN Security Council Resolutions 21.6 Conclusion References 22 Transnational and International Criminal Law 22.1 Introduction 22.2 Multiple Definitions of Transnational and International Criminal Law 22.3 Substantive "Transnational” Rules of Domestic Criminal Law (Droit Pénal International): Principles of Transnational Criminal Jurisdiction 22.3.1 Territorial Jurisdiction 22.3.2 Active Personality Principle 22.3.3 Passive Personality Principle 22.3.4 Protective Principle 22.3.5 Exclusive Jurisdiction 22.3.6 Vicarious (Representational) Jurisdiction 22.3.7 Universal Jurisdiction 22.4 International Criminal Procedure 22.4.1 Principles of International Criminal Procedure 22.4.2 International Cooperation in Penal Matters 22.5 International Criminal Law stricto sensu (Droit International Pénal) 22.5.1 General Part of International Criminal Law 22.5.2 “Core Crimes” Under International Law 22.5.3 International Crimes, Delicts, and Infractions 22.5.4 Direct Enforcement of International Criminal Law 22.5.5 Indirect Enforcement of International Criminal Law 22.6 Transitional Justice 22.6.1 Penal Prosecutions 22.6.2 Amnesty 22.6.3 Truth and Reconciliation Commission 22.6.4 Compensation 22.6.5 Lustration 22.7 Conclusion References 23 International Anti-corruption Law 23.1 Introduction 23.2 Overview of the Main Sources 23.2.1 International Law 23.2.2 Pledges, Commitments and “Leading by Example” 23.2.3 National Law with Extraterritorial Effect 23.2.4 Anti-corruption Compliance 23.3 Overview of Relevant Case Law 23.3.1 Petty Corruption 23.3.2 Corruption in the Corporate Realm 23.3.3 Grand Corruption and the Proposal for an International Anti-Corruption Court 23.3.4 Specialized National Anti-corruption Courts 23.4 New Developments Resulting from Current Challenges, and Possible Ways Forward 23.4.1 Integrity and the Emphasis on Ethics 23.4.2 Collective Action 23.4.3 Enhancing Transparency, Publicity and Open Access to Information 23.4.4 Whistleblower Protection 23.4.5 Public Procurement Rules 23.4.6 Infrastructure Development 23.5 Conclusion References 24 The Due Diligence Obligations of International Organisations Engaged in Disaster Management 24.1 Introduction 24.2 The Concept and Sources of Due Diligence Obligations for IOs 24.3 Due Diligence Obligations Related to Disaster Management Incumbent upon the UN 24.3.1 Haiti Cholera Epidemic Outbreak 24.3.2 Kosovo Lead Poisoning 24.3.3 Bangladesh Tube Wells Arsenic Poisoning 24.4 Due Diligence Obligations of Regional Organisations and Specialised Agencies 24.5 Conclusions References Part III Institutions 25 Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) 25.1 Introduction 25.2 Historical Evolution of the OSCE 25.3 Purpose of the OSCE 25.4 OSCE’s Institutions and Activities on International Security and Co-operation 25.5 OSCE’s Legal Framework through International Security 25.6 Conclusion References 26 European Union (EU): Security, Conflict and Migration 26.1 Introduction 26.2 Historical Overview 26.3 Treaty Provisions for the CSDP and CFSP 26.3.1 The Common Security and Defence Policy 26.3.2 The Strategy of European Security 26.3.3 The European Agenda on Security 26.4 Court Jurisdiction 26.5 Security and Conflict in Process of Change and Migration Management 26.5.1 The Response of the European Union to the Migrant Crisis 26.6 Conclusion References 27 Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) 27.1 Introduction 27.2 The Creation and Evolution of ASEAN 27.3 ASEAN and International / Regional Security 27.4 Conclusion References 28 Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO) 28.1 Introduction 28.1.1 History, Nature, and Idea of Collective Security 28.2 Historical Background of Collective Security Treaty Organization 28.3 Legal Framework and Legal Structure of the Collective Security Treaty Organization 28.4 Activities of Collective Security Treaty Organization 28.5 Conclusion References 29 The Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia 29.1 The Long Way to Transitional Justice 29.1.1 An Incapacitating Post-Conflict Situation 29.1.2 One Step Forward and Two Steps Back Negotiation Process 29.2 A Limited Jurisdiction 29.2.1 Temporal Jurisdiction 29.2.2 Territorial Jurisdiction 29.2.3 Subject-Matter Jurisdiction 29.2.4 Personal Jurisdiction 29.3 A Hybrid Jurisdiction of Extraordinary Nature 29.3.1 A Hybrid Structure… 29.3.2 ... Inserted Into the National Judicial System 29.4 A Review of the ECCC Caseload 29.4.1 Case 001 29.4.2 Case 002/01 and Case 002/02 29.4.3 Other Cases 29.5 A Potential Legacy for an Extraordinary Set-up? References 30 Other “Hybrid” Tribunals 30.1 Introduction 30.2 Hybrid Tribunals: Definition 30.3 Hybrid Tribunals: Reasons for Their Creation 30.4 Critique on the Establishment of Hybrid Tribunals 30.5 The Worldwide and Continuous Allure of Hybrid Courts and Their Relationship with the ICC 30.5.1 Special Panels for Serious Crimes in Timor-Leste 1999–2005 30.5.2 The Special Court for Sierra Leone 2002–2013 30.5.3 The Special Tribunal for Lebanon 30.5.4 The Extraordinary African Chambers of the Courts of Senegal 30.6 Conclusion References 31 Post-conflict Justice Mechanisms 31.1 Introduction 31.2 Seeking Justice in Transition 31.3 The Legal Framework of Transitional Justice 31.3.1 The Right to Justice 31.3.2 The Right to Truth 31.3.3 The Right to Reparation 31.3.4 Guarantees of Non-recurrence 31.4 The Practice of Transitional Justice 31.4.1 Trials 31.4.2 Truth Commissions 31.4.3 Reparations 31.4.4 Reform 31.5 Conclusion References 32 INTERPOL 32.1 The History of INTERPOL’s Foundation 32.1.1 Origins and Nazi Takeover 32.1.2 Revival 32.2 Challenges to INTERPOL’s Legal Status 32.2.1 The Nature of INTERPOL’s Constitution 32.2.2 The Capacity of INTERPOL’s Founders 32.2.3 The Member States Express Consent 32.2.4 A Problem Solved 32.3 Governance of INTERPOL 32.3.1 The Documentary Foundation 32.3.2 The Deliberative Entities 32.4 Instruments of International Police Cooperation 32.4.1 Aims and Purposes 32.4.2 The Notice System 32.4.3 Criticism 32.5 Conclusion References 33 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) 33.1 UNESCO as an Intergovernmental Organization 33.1.1 Historical Background 33.1.2 Purposes 33.1.3 Structure 33.2 UNESCO—Peace, Security and Conflict 33.2.1 Education, Peace and Conflict 33.2.2 Initiatives to Minimize Threats to Peace 33.3 Protection of Cultural Property During Armed Conflicts 33.4 Advances in Science for Peace 33.5 New Weapons Technologies 33.6 UNESCO and International Politics—Impact on Peace and Security 33.7 Conclusion References 34 United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF) 34.1 Introduction 34.2 History of UNICEF 34.3 UNICEF’s Principles 34.4 UNICEF’s Activities and Missions 34.5 UNICEF’s Response to COVID-19 34.6 Conclusion References 35 World Health Organization (WHO) 35.1 Introduction 35.2 History of the WHO 35.3 The WHO—A Specialized Agency of the United Nations 35.4 Legal Personality 35.5 Organizational Structure 35.6 The WHO Functions 35.7 WHO Rule-Making Function 35.8 State Responsibilities in Combatting the COVID-19 Pandemic 35.9 Conclusion References 36 United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) 36.1 Preliminary Remarks 36.2 The UNDP and the Right to Development as a Human Right 36.3 The UNDP in a Nutshell 36.4 The UNDP: Roles, Challenges and Critique 36.5 Final Remarks References 37 The International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement 37.1 Origin 37.2 Mission and Structure of the Movement 37.3 National Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies 37.3.1 Recognition of National Societies 37.3.2 Mandate, Role and Tasks 37.3.3 Auxiliarity 37.4 The International Committee of the Red Cross—ICRC 37.4.1 Origin 37.4.2 Legal Basis and Mandate 37.4.3 Functions and Role 37.4.4 Tasks and Operations 37.5 The International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies 37.6 Fundamental Principles of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement 37.7 Conclusion References 38 Human Rights NGOs and Humanitarian NGOs 38.1 Introduction 38.2 The Legal Nature of NGOs 38.3 History of Human Rights and Humanitarian NGOs 38.4 Key Tasks of Human Rights and Humanitarian NGOs 38.5 Human Rights and Humanitarian NGOs and International Law Development 38.6 Human Rights and Humanitarian NGOs International Legal Obligations Monitoring 38.7 Activities of NGOs in Humanitarian Assistance 38.8 Human Rights and Humanitarian NGOs and COVID-19 Pandemic 38.9 Conclusion References Part IV Challenges 39 Climate Change and Armed Conflict 39.1 Introduction 39.2 History of the Relationship Between Climate Change and Conflict 39.3 Anticipated Climatic Causes of Armed Conflict 39.3.1 Resource Scarcity 39.3.2 Migration and Geopolitical Tensions 39.3.3 Disputes Over Responses to Climate Change 39.4 Relevant International Law 39.4.1 International Humanitarian Law 39.4.2 International Climate Change Law 39.4.3 International Criminal Law 39.5 Future Developments 39.6 Conclusion References 40 Poaching and Wildlife Trafficking as Threats to International Peace and Security 40.1 Poaching and Wildlife Crime 40.2 Legal Framework 40.3 Poaching-Terror Link 40.4 Poaching and Regional Conflict 40.5 The Militarization of Conservation 40.6 A New Ecocentric Approach in International Law? 40.7 Conclusion References 41 The Use of Force in Pursuance of the Right to Self-determination 41.1 Introduction 41.2 The Use of Force 41.2.1 General Issues Surrounding the Use of Force 41.2.2 The Conflation of Military and Police Force 41.3 IHL Parameters Relevant to Self-determination 41.3.1 Common Article 3 41.3.2 Self-determination and ‘Internationalised’ Uses of Force 41.3.3 Formalisation as ‘International’ 41.4 Forceful Self-determination as ‘Terrorism’ 41.4.1 ‘Terrorist’ Force and Self-determination 41.4.2 Locating ‘Terrorism’ for Legal Purposes 41.4.3 The Necessity of Forceful Struggle 41.4.4 The Terrorism-Liberation Distinction 41.5 Conclusion References 42 The African Region’s Pushback Against Mercenaries 42.1 The OAU and the Challenge of Mercenaries (1963–2003) 42.2 The African Union and the Current Challenge (Since 2002) 42.2.1 Libya (2019- to Date) 42.3 The Regulation of Mercenary Activity in Africa 42.3.1 Current Treaties 42.3.2 The Malabo Protocol (2014) 42.4 Conclusion References 43 International Humanitarian Protection to Disabled and Elderly People in Armed Conflict Zones 43.1 Introduction 43.2 The Humanitarian Protection of Disabled People 43.3 The Humanitarian Protection of Elderly People 43.4 Conclusion References 44 The Politics of International Justice 44.1 Introduction 44.2 ‘Classical’ Understanding of International Law and the First International Courts 44.3 The Special Status of the Area of International Humanitarian Law, International Criminal Law, and International Human Rights Law 44.3.1 Early International Criminal Prosecutions: Ascribing Individual Responsibility and Power Politics 44.3.2 The Development of International Human Rights Courts and the Empowerment of the Individual 44.3.3 The Modern International Criminal Law Courts: Between Power Politics and the Pursuit of Objectivity 44.4 The Work of International Courts: Between Justice and Politics 44.4.1 International Criminal Courts 44.4.2 International Human Rights Courts 44.5 Conclusion References 45 Poverty 45.1 Introduction 45.2 Defining, Measuring and Framing Poverty 45.2.1 How Prevalent Is Poverty? 45.2.2 Different Views on the Causes of Poverty and Implications for Poverty Reduction Strategies 45.3 The Various Relationships between Poverty and Conflict 45.3.1 Poverty as a Cause or a Driver of Instability 45.3.2 Poverty as a Symptom and Consequence of Conflict 45.3.3 Poverty as a Result of Deliberate Harm 45.3.4 Poverty as a Subject of Transitional Justice 45.3.5 Poverty as a (Neglected) Concern in So-Called ‘Post-Conflict’ Measures 45.4 The International Legal and Policy Framework 45.5 Concluding Thoughts on the Role of International Law in Addressing the Relationship between Poverty and Conflict References Part V Crimes 46 Genocide 46.1 Introduction 46.2 The New Requirement of a Contextual Element 46.2.1 Lack of Any Reference to A Contextual Element in the Rome Statute 46.2.2 The Issue of the Elements of Crimes Requesting an Additional Condition 46.3 Mens Rea: The Mental Elements 46.3.1 “Intent” 46.3.2 To “Destroy” 46.3.3 The Protected Groups: National, Ethnical, Racial and Religious Groups 46.3.4 In Whole “or in Part” 46.3.5 “As Such” 46.4 Actus Reus: Prohibited Acts 46.4.1 Killing 46.4.2 Causing Serious Bodily or Mental Harm to Members of the Group 46.4.3 Deliberately Inflicting on the Group Conditions of Life Calculated to Bring about Its Physical Destruction in Whole or in Part 46.4.4 Imposing Measures Intended to Prevent Births within the Group 46.4.5 Forcibly Transferring Children of a Protected Group to Another Group 46.5 Conclusion References 47 Crimes Against Humanity 47.1 Introduction 47.2 Historical Development 47.3 Contemporary Definition 47.4 Protective Scope 47.5 Contextual (Material) Elements 47.5.1 International Element of the Crime 47.5.2 Widespread or Systematic Attack 47.5.3 Any Civilian Population 47.5.4 Policy Element 47.6 Individual Acts 47.6.1 Murder 47.6.2 Extermination 47.6.3 Enslavement 47.6.4 Deportation or Forcible Transfer of Population 47.6.5 Imprisonment or Other Severe Deprivations of Liberty 47.6.6 Torture 47.6.7 Sexual Crimes 47.6.8 Persecution 47.6.9 Enforced Disappearance of Persons 47.7 Relationship to Other Crimes Under International Law 47.8 Current Open Issues, Challenges and New Developments 47.9 Conclusion References 48 The Crime of Apartheid 48.1 Apartheid in Historical Context 48.1.1 Introduction 48.1.2 Apartheid and Settler-Colonialism 48.1.3 The Policy and Legal Foundations of the System of Apartheid in South Africa 48.1.4 Resisting Apartheid 48.1.5 The Armed Struggle against Apartheid 48.2 Political and Legal Responses to the System of Apartheid 48.2.1 An Overview of International Instruments Declaring Apartheid to be a Crime against Humanity 48.2.2 Defining the Crime of Apartheid 48.3 Apartheid as a Crime against Humanity (and Humanness) 48.4 Conclusion References 49 War Crimes 49.1 A Brief History of International Prosecutions for War Crimes 49.2 The Concept and Elements of War Crimes 49.3 Classification of War Crimes 49.3.1 War Crimes against Protected Persons 49.3.2 War Crimes against Protected Objects 49.3.3 War Crimes Related to Unlawful Methods of Warfare 49.3.4 War Crimes Related to Unlawful Means of Warfare 49.4 Perpetrators and Victims 49.4.1 Perpetrators 49.4.2 Victims 49.5 Prosecutions and Amnesty 49.6 Conclusion References 50 The Crime of Aggression: The Fall of the Supreme International Crime? 50.1 Introductory Remarks 50.2 The Hypothesis of Nuremberg: The Supreme International Crime 50.3 The Marginalization of the Crime of Aggression after Nuremberg 50.3.1 The Retarding Moments of the Resurrection of the Crime of Aggression 50.3.2 The Consensual Jurisdiction of the ICC in the Absence of a Security Council Referral 50.3.3 The Domestic Enforcement Conundrum 50.4 Conclusion: Do Not Bite the Hand That Feeds You References 51 Military Ecocide 51.1 Introduction 51.2 The History of Military Ecocide 51.2.1 Offensive Ecocide 51.2.2 Defensive Ecocide 51.2.3 Collateral Damage: Indirect Military Environmental Degradation 51.3 The Militarization of the Environment 51.4 History of International Law on Military Ecocide 51.5 Normative Progress in Criminalizing Military Ecocide 51.6 Conclusion References 52 Religious Extremism 52.1 Religion and Violence 52.2 Religious Extremism 52.3 Fundamentalism versus Extremism 52.4 Extremism in Judaism 52.5 Extremism in Christianity 52.6 Extremism in Islam 52.7 Extremism in Buddhism 52.8 Extremism in Hinduism 52.9 Human Rights and Countering Religious Extremism 52.10 Conclusion References 53 Human Smuggling and Human Trafficking 53.1 Introduction 53.1.1 The Main Differences Between Human Smuggling and Human Trafficking 53.2 Human Smuggling 53.2.1 Legal Framing 53.2.2 Maritime Migrant Smuggling 53.3 Human Trafficking 53.3.1 Legislative Framework 53.3.2 Human Trafficking as a Form of Modern Slavery 53.4 Human Trafficking and Smuggling in Conflict 53.4.1 International Jurisprudence 53.5 Conclusion References 54 Organized Crime 54.1 Introduction 54.2 Origins of the Concept 54.3 Construction of a Crime and Design of Criminal Law Offenses 54.3.1 The U.S. Experience 54.3.2 Modern Approaches to Constructing Organized Crime Offenses 54.4 The Police View on Organized Crime 54.4.1 Introduction 54.4.2 Europol 54.4.3 Interpol 54.4.4 Other International Organizations’ Voices 54.5 “Leaks”, Civil Society and Investigative Reporting 54.6 Relevance of Organized Crime for International Conflict and Security 54.7 Conclusion References Part VI Case Studies 55 Cambodia 55.1 Introduction 55.2 The Legacy of the Past 55.2.1 The Pre-1975 Period 55.2.2 The Post-1975 Period 55.3 Post-Conflict Reconstruction 55.3.1 Peace Agreement 55.3.2 Post-UNTAC 55.4 Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia 55.4.1 Structure and Composition 55.4.2 Overview of the Applicable International and Domestic Laws 55.4.3 Case Law 55.5 The Current Justice System and Political Climate in Cambodia 55.5.1 The Justice System 55.5.2 The Political Climate 55.5.3 The ECCC’s Contribution to the Development of the Rule of Law in Cambodia 55.6 Conclusion References 56 Myanmar 56.1 Myanmar: A State of Colonialism, Conflict and Coups 56.1.1 Terminology 56.1.2 Myanmar as a State: A Turbulent History 56.2 Constant Conflict 56.2.1 Conflict Case Study Examples: Karen and Kachin 56.3 The Rohingya Genocide 56.4 Myanmar’s Conflicts and Genocide in International Law 56.4.1 The Universal Periodic Review 56.4.2 The United Nations Security Council 56.4.3 International Court of Justice 56.4.4 International Criminal Court 56.5 Conclusion References 57 Northern Cyprus 57.1 Introduction: From Colony to Independence 57.2 Cyprus Issue between Zurich and London 57.3 The Establishment of Cyprus Democracy in 1960 and the Greco-Turkish Cyprus Republic 57.4 The Period 1960–1963: The Post-Independence Breakdown 57.5 From the Inter-Communal Disputes to the Breakdown of Constitutional Order 57.6 On the Road to the Conflict of 1974: Inter-Communal Negotiations 57.7 The First Intervention (Attila I) (July 1974) 57.8 The Second Intervention (Attila II) (August 1974) 57.9 Negotiations between Communities, Motherlands and the UN Involvement 57.9.1 From “High-Level Agreements” to “Interim Agreement” 57.9.2 From the “Draft Framework Agreement” to “Confidence Building Measures” 57.9.3 The Annan Plan 57.9.4 The New Era of Negotiations: The Cyprus Issue after Annan 57.10 TRNC’s Matters on State and Statehood and International Law 57.11 Conclusion References 58 Former Yugoslavia 58.1 Introduction: A Brief History Before the War 58.2 On the Road to War: First Steps to Yugoslavia’s Disintegration 58.3 The First Phase: The Beginning of the Dissolution of Yugoslavia and the Rise of Ethnic Tensions 58.4 The Second Phase: Self-Determination and the End of Yugoslavia 58.4.1 The War in Slovenia 58.4.2 The War in Croatia 58.4.3 The War in Bosnia–Herzegovina 58.5 The Dayton Peace Agreement 58.6 The Question on Ethnic Cleansing and the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia 58.7 Conclusion References 59 Northern Ireland: The Right to Life, Victim Mobilisation, and the Legacy of Conflict 59.1 Introduction 59.2 Background: Human Rights and the Northern Ireland Conflict 59.3 Rights in Practice: Northern Ireland, the ECtHR, and Article 2 59.3.1 Northern Ireland and Article 2 ECHR: The Right to Life 59.4 The Rhetoric of Rights: Victim Mobilisation and Article 2 Compliant Investigations 59.4.1 Opposition to Human Rights Language in Northern Ireland 59.5 Conclusion References 60 The “War on Terror” 60.1 Introduction 60.2 The Post 9/11 Securitisation and the ‘War on Terror’ Paradigm 60.2.1 Domestic Securitisation 60.2.2 International Securitisation 60.3 Designing the ‘War on Terror’ 60.3.1 The Complementarity of International Humanitarian Law and International Human Rights Law 60.3.2 The ‘War on Terror’ as an Armed Conflict 60.3.3 The Concept of Armed Conflict within International Law 60.3.4 The ‘War on Terror’, Core IHL Protections and Individual Terror Suspects 60.4 The post 9/11 Securitisation Catalysts and the Legacy of the ‘War on Terror’ 60.5 Conclusion References 61 Jihad Misplaced for Terrorism: An Overview of the Boko Haram Crisis from Islamic and International Humanitarian Law Perspectives 61.1 Introduction 61.2 Boko Haram: Its Emergence, Causes and Organisational Structure 61.2.1 Emergence of Boko Haram 61.2.2 Causes of Boko Haram Crisis 61.2.3 Organisational Structure of Boko Haram 61.3 Terrorism, Jihad and Boko Haram 61.3.1 Defining Terrorism 61.3.2 Defining Jihad 61.3.3 Is Boko Haram Engaged in Jihad? 61.3.4 Can Boko Haram Declare Jihad? 61.3.5 Is Boko Haram Engaged in an Internal Armed Conflict under IHL? 61.4 Basic Principles of Islamic Law of Jihad and IHL 61.4.1 Principle of Military Necessity 61.4.2 Principle of Distinction 61.4.3 Principle of Proportionality 61.4.4 Principle of Humanity 61.5 Trial of Boko Haram Suspects in Domestic Courts or before the International Criminal Court 61.6 Conclusion References 62 Accountability of Religious Actors for Conflicts Motivated by Religion 62.1 Introduction: The Responsibility of Religion and the Responsibility of Religious Actors 62.2 Religious Authority as a Central Factor in the Attribution of Responsibility to Religious Actors 62.3 Responsibility of Religious Actors under Municipal and International Law 62.4 The Catholic Church and Islam as Accountable Religious Actors 62.5 Religious Authority in the Catholic Church: The Holy See and Local Churches 62.6 Religious Authority in Islam: The Central Role of Sharia Scholars 62.7 Conclusion References 63 The Children vs the Church: Human Rights and the Holy See in the Sex Abuse Crisis 63.1 Sex Abuse by Catholic Clergy: Local and Global Responsibilities 63.2 The Holy See before the Council of Europe 63.3 The Holy See before the International Criminal Court 63.4 The Holy See before the United Nations Human Rights Treaty Bodies 63.4.1 The Holy See before the United Nations Committee on the Rights of the Child 63.4.2 The Holy See before the United Nations Committee against Torture 63.4.3 The Holy See Before the United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination 63.4.4 Preliminary Conclusions: The Understanding of the International Obligations of the Holy See by United Nations Treaty Bodies 63.5 The Holy See in Dialogue with the United Nations Treaty Bodies 63.6 Conclusion References 64 The Role of International Law in the Prevention and Resolution of Possible Conflicts over Water in Central Asia: A Comparative Study with Special Reference to the European Union (EU) 64.1 An Overview: The Role of International Water Law in the Prevention and Resolution of Possible Conflicts over Water in Central Asia 64.2 The Right to Water 64.3 Substantive Principles Concerning the Sharing of Transboundary Water Resources 64.4 How Can International Water Law Prevent and Resolve Possible Conflicts over Water? 64.5 Water Scarcity, Disputes and International Law–Scarcity or Lack of Political Will: What Really Connects Water Resources to Conflicts? 64.6 Agreements Governing the Management of Transboundary Watercourses in the EU 64.6.1 The Rhine River Basin and the International Commission for the Protection of the Rhine (ICPR) 64.6.2 The EU Framework 64.6.3 The 1992 Water Convention and the 1997 Watercourses Convention 64.7 Enforcement of International Water Law in Central Asia: Examples from Kazakhstani Jurisdiction 64.8 Conclusion References