Pulsed Electric Fields Technology for the Food Industry: Fundamentals and Applications

Description

Many novel technologies have been proposed in the attempt to improve existing food processing methods. Among emerging nonthermal technologies, high intensity pulsed electric fields (PEF) is appealing due to its short treatment times and reduced heating effects. This book presents information accumulated on PEF during the last 15 years by experienced microbiologists, biochemists, food technologists, and electrical and food engineers. Preface Contents Part I: Fundamentals of Application of Pulsed Electric Fields in the Food Industry History of Pulsed Electric Fields in Food Processing Introduction Early Works Prior to the Middle of the Twentieth Century Bactericidal Effects Assistance of Food Processing Operations Plasmolysis and “Electrocution” of Foods Electroplasmolysis Early Studies in the 1950s The Role of Anatolii Zagorul’ko The Role of Boris Flaumenbaum Other Studies of Electroplamolysis in the 1950s Food-Oriented Applications of Electroplasmolysis in the 1960s–1990s Experimental Studies and Development of Methods Construction of Electroplasmolyzers and Electroextractors Pulsed Electric Fields Early Concepts of Electroporation and Treatment by PEF Concept of Electroporation Early Practical Application of PEF: The Role of Heinz Doevenspeck Doevenspeck and Krupp Company Doevenspeck and Sitzmann PEF: From the Lab to the First Industrial Applications (1980–2010) PEF: The Consolidation of the Technology and the Development of Future Applications (2010–2020) References Generation and Application of High Intensity Pulsed Electric Fields Introduction Electric Load Requirements Specific Power Consumption Average Power Voltage Waveforms Pulse Lengths and Repetition Rates Conclusion Pulsed Power Systems General Remarks About Switches in Pulsed Power Generators PEF Treatment Chambers High-Power Sources Basic Pulsed Power Circuits Capacitive Circuits Inductive Circuits Ringing Circuits Circuits with Transformers or Other Voltage Multipliers Circuits with Pulse Transformers Circuits with Storage Transformers Voltage Multiplier I (MARX Generator) Voltage Multiplier II (GREINACHER Cascade) Current Multiplier (XRAM Generator) Pulse Forming Networks Pulse Forming Lines Pulse Forming Networks Networks with Pulse Forming Switches Concluding Remarks Components of High-Power Sources High-Power Capacitors Switches Trigatrons Ignitrons Thyratrons and Pseudospark Switches Thyristors, Diodes, and IGCT Switches Concluding Remarks Low-Power Source Basic Considerations Typical Devices Appendices Appendix A: Differential Equation System of Inhomogeneous Pulse Forming Networks Appendix B: Differential Equation System Describing Homogeneous Pulse Forming Networks References The Phenomenon of Electroporation The Phenomenon and Its Applications Electroporation at the Membrane and Molecular Level Electroporation at the Level of a Single Cell and Cell Suspension Electroporation at the Level of Cell Suspensions and Tissues Conclusions References Electrochemical Reactions in  Pulsed Electric Fields Treatment Introduction Historical Background Electrochemical Behavior of a PEF Treatment Chamber Ionic Double Layer and Electrode Reactions Electrical Equivalent Circuit Factors Affecting Electrode Reactions Processing Parameters Design Parameters Treatment Medium Characteristics Side Effects of Electrochemical Phenomena and Challenges Conclusions References Part II: Effects of Interest of Pulsed Electric Fields in the Food Industry Microbial Inactivation by Pulsed Electric Fields Introduction Mechanisms of Microbial Inactivation by PEF The Electroporation Phenomenon The Microbial Cell in an Electric Field Potential Cell Outcomes After PEF Techniques for the Detection of Electroporation in Microbial Cells Factors Determining Microbial Inactivation by PEF Processing Parameters Electric Field Strength Treatment Time Pulse Shape Pulse Width Frequency Specific Energy Temperature Microbial Characteristics Type of Microorganism Cell Size and Shape Culture Conditions Characteristics of the Treatment Medium Electrical Conductivity pH Water Activity (ɑw) Composition of the Treatment Medium Kinetics of Microbial Inactivation by PEF Methodological Artifacts Affecting Microbial Inactivation Kinetics by PEF Strain and Culture Conditions PEF Treatment Parameters Treatment Medium Recovery Conditions Combined Treatments Conclusions References Cell Membrane Permeabilization by Pulsed Electric Fields for Efficient Extraction of Intercellular Components from Foods Introduction Electroporation, Its Detection, and PEF Protocols Electroporation of Membranes Electroporation of Single Cell and Ensembles of Cells and Tissues Spherical Cell Cells with Different Shapes and Sizes Ensembles of Cells Tissues Techniques to Detect Electroporation Light and Other Microscopies Electrical Impedance Techniques Diffusivity Textural Tests Acoustic Test PEF Protocols, Treatment Chambers, and Optimization of the Treatment PEF Protocols Treatment Chambers Optimization of the PEF Treatment Solid/Liquid Expression and Solvent Extraction of Valuable Compounds from Food Plants Enhanced by PEF Solid/Liquid Expression: Principles and Models Solvent Extraction of Soluble Substances: Principles and Models Some Examples of PEF-Assisted Processes for Different Foods Potatoes and Apples Sugar Crops Sugar Beet Sugarcane Chicory Carrots Red Beets Onions Tomatoes Citruses Winemaking from Grapes Mushrooms Conclusions References Effect of Pulsed Electric Fields on Food Quality Introduction Pulsed Electric Fields as a Way to Improve Food Quality High-Intensity Pulsed Electric Fields (HIPEF) Moderate-Intensity Pulsed Electric Fields (MIPEF) Effects of PEF on Food Constituents Related to Food Quality Attributes Proteins Lipids Carbohydrates Minor Compounds Final Remarks References Part III: Applications of Pulsed Electric Fields in the Food Industry Liquid Food Pasteurization by Pulsed Electric Fields Introduction Principle of PEF for Pasteurization Potential Liquid Products for PEF Pasteurization Fruit Juices High-Acid Fruit Juices Low-Acid Fruit Juices Smoothies and Fruit Puree Vegetable Juices and Soups Milk and Milk-Derived Products Eggs Beer Conclusions and Outlook References Pulsed Electric Fields in the Potato Industry Usage of Pulsed Electric Field (PEF) in the Potato Industry Production of French Fries Challenges for the French Fry Production Implementation in the Industrial French Fry Process Potato Chips Processing Challenges for the Potato Chips Production Technical Implementation in a Chips Processing Line Conclusion References Applications of Pulsed Electric Fields in Winemaking Introduction The Application of PEF to Improve Red Winemaking Effect of PEF on the Extraction of Phenolic Compounds During Maceration in Red Winemaking Evolution of Wine Obtained with Grapes Treated by PEF During Aging in Bottles and Oak Barrels Sensory Properties of Wines Obtained with Grapes Treated by PEF Application of PEF in Wineries for Microbial Inactivation Application of PEF in Wineries for Accelerating Aging on the Lees Conclusions References Applying Pulsed Electric Fields to Improve Olive Oil Extraction Introduction Olive Oil Extraction The Application of PEF to Improve the Olive Oil Extraction Process Effects of the Application of PEF Upstream of the Crushing Stage PEF Effects Downstream of the Crushing Stage and Upstream of Malaxation Effects of PEF Treatment Downstream of the Malaxation Stage and Upstream of the Separation Stage Cost Analysis Conclusions References Integration of Pulsed Electric Fields in the Biorefinery Concept to Extract Microalgae Components of Interest for Food Industry Introduction Cell Disintegration Methods Biorefinery Concept Based on PEF Technology Impact of Various Processing Conditions on Recovery of Proteins and Pigments Impact of Incubation Time and Temperature Impact of Post-PEF Incubation pH Impact of Biomass Concentration Specific Treatment Energy Conclusion References Drying Improving by Pulsed Electric Fields Introduction Drying Progress The Effect of PEF Pre-treatment on Drying Air Drying Freeze-Drying Osmotic Dehydration Conclusion References Pulsed Electric Fields Application in Meat Processing Introduction Effect of PEF on Meat Quality Effect of PEF on Meat Tenderness Effect of PEF on Water Holding Capacity of Meat Effect of PEF on Purge Loss of Meat Effect of PEF on Cooking Loss of Meat Effect of PEF on Colour of Meat Effect of PEF on Sensory Properties of Meat Effect of PEF on Thermal Properties and Solubility of Meat Proteins Effect of PEF on Lipid Oxidation in Meat Effect of PEF on Fatty Acid Composition of Meat Effect of PEF on Volatile Profile of Meat Effect of PEF on Mineral Profile of Meat Effect of PEF on Microorganisms in Meat Application of PEF as Pretreatment to Sous-Vide Processing Application of PEF as Pretreatment to Meat Ageing Application of PEF in Meat Salting, Brining, and Drying Conclusions Future Directions References Other Applications of Pulsed Electric Fields Technology for the Food Industry Introduction Extraction of Pigments by PEF Extraction of Pigments from Plant-Based Matrices Extraction of Valuable Pigments from Microbial Cells Enhancing Expression of Juices by PEF Improvement of Sugar Beet Processing by PEF Improving Tomato Peeling by PEF Application of PEF for By-products Revalorization Conclusions References Part IV: Pulsed Electric Fields Processing in the Food Industry Pulsed Electric Field Process Performance Analysis Introduction Role of Experimental Setup Role of Thermal Effects and Complex Media in Microbial Inactivation Thermal Effects Complex Media PEF Treatment of Plant Materials and Requirements for Process Integration Role of Plant Tissue Structure for PEF Performance Role of Process Integration for Evaluation of PEF Performance Consideration of Connected Processing Steps Challenges for Industrial Implementation Conclusion References Pulsed Electric Fields Industrial Equipment Design Introduction Prerequisites of PEF Equipment Design Pulsed Power Supply Treatment Chamber Design Considerations Current and Upcoming Industrial Applications and Systems Used R&D and Smaller-Scale Systems Fruit Juice and Smoothie Preservation Processing of Agricultural Products Process Control Options Conclusions and Outlook References Process Validation and Hygienic Design for Pulsed Electric Field Processing Introduction Hygienic Design Validation of PEF Process Validation of Microbial 5-Log Reduction Product Factors Microbial Factors PEF System Validation: Process Parameters Conclusion References Environmental Impact Assessment of Pulsed Electric Fields Technology for Food Processing Introduction Environmental Assessment of a Food Processing Technology Sustainability Conditions for Different PEF Applications Life Cycle Impact Assessment and Comparison of Technologies PEF for Preservation of Liquids PEF in Potato Processing PEF for Other Applications Techno-economic Conditions Conclusion References Regulation of Foods Processed by Pulsed or Moderate Electric Fields (PEF or MEF) Introduction Regulation Within the European Union (EU) Background to Regulation in the EU Novel Food Regulations 2283/2015 vs. 258/97 What Do These Two Regulations Have in Common? What Are the Main Differences Between These Two Regulations? Application Process Novel Technology Applications Within the EU Regulation Within the USA Background Regulating ‘New Technologies’ Pulsed Electric Fields Conclusions References