Nuclear Medicine Physics. The Basics

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Cover Title Page Copyright Dedication Preface Contents 1 Basic Review Matter, Elements, and Atoms Simplified Structure of an Atom Molecules Binding Energy, Ionization, and Excitation Forces or Fields Electromagnetic Forces Characteristic X-Rays and Auger Electrons Interchangeability of Mass and Energy 2 Nuclides and Radioactive Processes Nuclides and Their Classification Nuclear Structure and Excited States of a Nuclide Radionuclides and Stability of Nuclides Radioactive Series or Chain Radioactive Processes and Conservation Laws Alpha (α) Decay Beta (β) Decay, or More Appropriately, Isobaric Transition Gamma (γ) Decay, or More Appropriately, Isomeric Transition Decay Schemes 3 Radioactivity: Law of Decay, Half-Life, and Statistics Radioactivity: Definition, Units, and Dosage Law of Decay Calculation of the Mass of a Radioactive Sample Specific Activity The Exponential Law of Decay Half-Life Problems on Radioactive Decay Average Life (Tav) Biologic Half-Life Effective Half-Life Statistics of Radioactive Decay Poisson Distribution, Standard Deviation, and Percent Standard Deviation Propagation of Statistical Errors Error in Count Rate Room Background 4 Production of Radionuclides Methods of Radionuclide Production Reactor-Produced Radionuclides Accelerator- or Cyclotron-Produced Radionuclides Fission-Produced Radionuclides General Considerations in the Production of Radionuclides Production of Short-Lived Radionuclides, Using a Long-Lived Radionuclide via a Generator Principles of a Generator Description of a Typical 99Mo–99mTc Generator 5 Radiopharmaceuticals Design Considerations for a Radiopharmaceutical Selection of a Radionuclide Selection of a Chemical Development of a Radiopharmaceutical Chemical Studies Animal Distribution and Toxicity Studies Human or Clinical Studies Quality Control of a Radiopharmaceutical Radionuclidic Purity Radiochemical Purity Chemical Purity Sterility Apyrogenicity Labeling of Radiopharmaceuticals with Technetium-99m Technetium-99m-Labeled Radiopharmaceuticals Technetium-99m Pertechnetate (99mTcO–4) Technetium-99m-Labeled Sulfur Colloid Technetium-99m-Labeled Macroaggregated Albumin (MAA, Macrotec, or Technescan) Technetium-99m-Labeled Pyrophosphate (PYP), Methyl Diphosphonate (MDP) and Oxidronate (HDP) Technetium-99m-Labeled Human Serum Albumin Technetium-99m-Labeled Red Cells Technetium-99m-Labeled 2,3-Dimercaptosuccinic Acid (DMSA) Technetium-99m-Labeled Diethylenetriamine Pentaacetic Acid (DTPA, Pentetate or Techniplex) Technetium-99m-Labeled Mertiatide (MAG3 or TechneScan MAG3) Technetium-99m-Labeled Mebrofenin (Choletec) and Disofenin (Heptolite) Technetium-99m-Labeled Sestamibi (Cardiolite) Technetium-99m-Labeled Tetrofosmin (Myoview) Technetium-99m-Labeled Brain Imaging Agents, Exametazime (HMPAO or Ceretec), and Bicisate (ECD or Neurolite) Technetium-99m-Labeled Tilmanocept (Lymphoseek) Radioiodine123-Labeled Radiopharmaceuticals (123I replacing 131I) Iodine-123-Labeled Sodium Iodide Iodine-123-Labeled MIBG (Metaiodobenzylguanidine, Iobenguane, or Andreview) Iodine-123-Labeled Ioflupane (DaTscan) Compounds Labeled with Other Radionuclides Gallium-67 Citrate Thallous-201 Chloride Chromium-51-Labeled Red Cells Indium-111-Labeled Platelets and Leukocytes Indium-111-Labeled DTPA (111In-Pentetate) Indium-111-Labeled Pentetreotide (OctreoScan) Radiolabeled Monoclonal Antibodies (111In-ProstaScint) Radioactive Gases and Aerosols Radiopharmaceuticals for PET Imaging 18FDG (Fludeoxyglucose) 18F-Florbetapir (Amyvid), 18F-Florbetaben (NeuraCeq), and 18F-Flutemetamol (Vizamyl) 18F-Labeled Sodium Fluoride 13N-Ammonia 82Rb (Cardiogen-82) 11C-Choline 18F-Labeled Fluciclovine (FACBC or Axumin) 68Ga-Labeled DOTATATE and DOTATOC Radiopharmaceuticals in Pregnant or Lactating Women Therapeutic and Theranostic Uses of Radiopharmaceuticals Design of a Radiopharmaceutical for Therapeutic Uses Problems and Uses Misadministration of Radiopharmaceuticals 6 Interaction of High-Energy Radiation with Matter Interaction of Charged Particles (10 keV to 10 MeV) Principal Mechanism of Interaction (Ionization and Excitation) Differences Between Lighter and Heavier Charged Particles Range R of a Charged Particle Factors That Affect Range, R Bremsstrahlung Production Stopping Power (S) Linear Energy Transfer Difference Between LET and Stopping Power, S Annihilation of Positrons Cerenkov Radiation Interaction of X- or γ-Rays (10 keV to 10 MeV) Attenuation and Transmission of X- or γ-Rays Attenuation Through Heterogeneous Medium Mass Attenuation Coefficient, µ (mass) Atomic Attenuation Coefficient, µ (atom) Mechanisms of Interaction Dependence of µ (mass) and µ (linear) on Z Relative Importance of the Three Processes Interaction of Neutrons 7 Radiation Dosimetry General Comments on Radiation Dose Calculations Definitions and Units Radiation Dose, D Radiation Dose Rate, dD/dt Parameters or Data Needed Calculation of the Radiation Dose Step 1—Rate of Energy Emission Step 2—Rate of Energy Absorption Step 3—Dose Rate, dD/dt Step 4—Average Dose, D Cumulated Radioactivity Simplification of Radiation Dose Calculations Using “S” Factor Some Illustrative Examples Radiation Doses in Routine Imaging Procedures Radiation Doses in Children Radiation Dose to a Fetus Computer Program (OLINDA/EXM) 8 Detection of High-Energy Radiation What Do We Want to Know About Radiation? Simple Detection Quantity of Radiation Energy of the Radiation Nature of Radiation What Makes One Radiation Detector Better than Another? Intrinsic Efficiency or Sensitivity Dead Time or Resolving Time Energy Discrimination Capability or Energy Resolution Other Considerations Types of Detectors Gas-Filled Detectors Mechanism of Gas-Filled Detectors Types of Gas-Filled Detectors Scintillation Detectors (Counters) Scintillator Associated Electronics Response to Monochromatic (Single-Energy) γ-Rays Response to γ-Rays of Two Energies and Secondary Peaks Semiconductor Detectors 9 In Vitro Radiation Detection Overall Efficiency E Intrinsic Efficiency Geometric Efficiency Well-Type NaI(Tl) Scintillation Detectors (Well Counters) Liquid Scintillation Detectors Basic Components Preparation of the Sample Detector Vial Problems Arising in Sample Preparation 10 In Vivo Radiation Detection: Basic Problems, Probes, and Scintillation Camera Basic Problems Collimation Scattering Attenuation Organ Uptake Probes NaI(Tl) Detector Collimator Miniature Surgical Probes Organ Imaging and Scintillation Camera Components of a Scintillation Camera Collimators Detector, NaI(Tl) Crystal Position-Determining Circuit (X, Y Coordinates) Display Imaging with a Scintillation Camera 11 Computer Interfacing and Image Processing Interfacing with a Computer Digital Images from the Scintillation Camera Pixel and Matrix Acquisition Modes Display of Images Digital Image Processing Scaling, Addition or Subtraction, and Smoothing Display of Volumetric Data Regions of Interest Registration of Images Tracer Kinetic Modeling 12 Operational Characteristics and Quality Control (QC) of a Scintillation Camera Quantitative Parameters for Measuring Spatial Resolution PSF and FWHM as Measures of Spatial Resolution, R MTF Resolution of an Imaging Chain Quantitative Parameters for Measuring Sensitivity Point Sensitivity Sp Line Sensitivity, SL Plane Sensitivity, SA Factors Affecting Spatial Resolution and Sensitivity of an Imager Scintillation Camera Uniformity and High Count Rate Performance of a Scintillation Camera Uniformity High Count Rates and Issues of Dead Time and Pulse Pile-up QC of a Scintillation Camera Peaking Field Uniformity Spatial Resolution 13 Emission Computed Tomography (ECT), General Principles Basic Principles Considerations in Data Acquisition Pixel Width, Matrix, and Number of Projections Pixel Width, Resolution, and Sensitivity Image Reconstruction Methods Back-Projection (a Simple Explanation) Filtered Back-Projection (An Improved Reconstruction Method): Actual Steps Practical Challenges Iterative Methods Quantitation 14 Single-Photon Emission Computed Tomography Data Acquisition With a Scintillation Camera Collimators Sources of Error and Needed Quality Control Corrections for Accurate Image Reconstruction Attenuation Correction Scatter Correction Resolution Recovery (also known as Collimator-Detector Response Correction) Dedicated SPECT Systems D-SPECT GE Discovery NM 530c Other Novel Designs 15 Positron Emission Tomography (PET) Basic Principles Positron Emission and Annihilation Coincidence Detection Standard PET Instrumentation Data Acquisition 2D versus 3D Mode Time-of-flight (TOF) PET PET/CT Imaging Correction Methods Normalization or Uniformity Correction Attenuation Correction Scattered Coincidence Correction Random Coincidence Correction Resolution in PET and its Recovery by PSF Modeling Quality Control (QC) of a PET Scanner Performance Characteristics of PET Scanners 16 Detectability or Final Contrast in an Image Parameters that Affect Detectability of a Lesion Object Contrast Spatial Resolution and Sensitivity of an Imaging Device Statistical (Quantum) Noise Projection of Volume Distribution into Planar Distribution Compton Scattering of γ-Rays Attenuation Object Motion Display Parameters Contrast–Detail Curve Receiver Operator Characteristic Curve 17 Biologic Effects of Radiation and Risk Evaluation from Radiation Exposure Mechanism of Biologic Damage Factors Affecting Biologic Damage Radiation Dose Dose Rate LET or Type of Radiation Type of Tissue Amount of Tissue Rate of Cell Turnover Biologic Variation Chemical Modifiers Deleterious Effects in Humans Acute Effects Late Effects Low Dose Relationship for Stochastic Effects Radiation Effects in the Fetus Different Radiation Exposures and the Concepts of Equivalent Dose (Dose Equivalent) and Effective Dose (Effective Dose Equivalent) Equivalent Dose (Dose Equivalent) Effective Dose, Effective Dose Equivalent, and Tissue Weighting Factors Methodology for Comparison of Different Exposures Committed Equivalent Dose and Committed Effective Dose Sources of Radiation Exposure to U.S. Population and Average Effective Dose Natural Background Radiation Medical Exposure Technological Exposures Average Total Effective Dose per Person Effective Doses in Nuclear Medicine and Comparison with Other Sources of Exposure 18 Methods of Safe Handling of Radionuclides and Pertaining Rules and Regulations Principles of Reducing Exposure from External Sources Exposure Calculation of Exposure from External Sources Avoiding Internal Contamination The Radioactive Patient Rules and Regulations U.S. Regulatory Agencies Exposure or Dose Limits: Annual Limit on Intake and Derived Air Concentration ALARA Principle Types of Licenses Radiation Safety Committee and Radiation Safety Officer Personnel Monitoring Receipt, Use, and Disposal of Radionuclides Control and Labeling of Areas Where Radionuclides Are Stored and/or Used Contamination Survey and Radiation-Level Monitoring Receiving and Shipping (Transport) of Radioactive Packages Accidental Radioactive Spills Appendix A: Physical Characteristics of Some Radionuclides of Interest in Nuclear Medicine Appendix B: CGS and SI Units Appendix C: Radionuclides of Interest in Nuclear Medicine Answers Suggestions for Further Reading Index