The Fairy Tale Of Nuclear Fusion

Description

This carefully researched book presents facts and arguments showing, beyond a doubt, that nuclear fusion power will not be technically feasible in time to satisfy the world's urgent need for climate-neutral energy. The author describes the 70-year history of nuclear fusion; the vain attempts to construct an energy-generating nuclear fusion power reactor, and shows that even in the most optimistic scenario nuclear fusion, in spite of the claims of its proponents, will not be able to make a sizable contribution to the energy mix in this century, whatever the outcome of ITER. This implies that fusion power will not be a factor in combating climate change, and that the race to save the climate with carbon-free energy will have been won or lost long before the first nuclear fusion power station comes on line. Aimed at the general public as well as those whose decisions directly affect energy policy, this book will be a valuable resource for informing future debates. Preface......Page 6 Acknowledgements......Page 12 Contents......Page 13 Acronyms and Abbreviations......Page 20 Part I Introductory Chapters......Page 28 1.1 Introduction......Page 29 1.2 Some Basic Nuclear Physics......Page 34 1.3 Stellar Processes and Quantum Mechanics......Page 40 1.4 Nuclear Fusion of Light Elements......Page 44 2.1.1 General......Page 50 2.1.2 Temperature......Page 52 2.1.4 Physics of Plasmas......Page 53 2.2 Plasma in Nuclear Fusion Devices......Page 56 2.2.1 The Lawson Criterion......Page 57 2.2.2 Plasma Heating......Page 60 2.2.3 Lorentz Force and Particle Trajectory in a Magnetic Field......Page 62 2.2.5 Plasma Modelling......Page 64 2.3.1 Introduction......Page 69 2.3.2 Classification of Plasma Instabilities......Page 71 2.3.3 Rayleigh–Taylor Instability......Page 73 Part II Early Fusion Activity and The Rise of the Tokamak......Page 75 3.1.1 The Pinch Effect......Page 76 3.2 Early British Efforts......Page 78 3.3.1 Introduction......Page 86 3.3.2 Pinch Devices......Page 89 3.3.3 Early Stellarator......Page 92 3.3.4 Mirror Devices......Page 96 3.3.5 Other US Programmes......Page 102 3.4 Declassification......Page 107 3.5.1 The Birth of the Tokamak......Page 113 3.5.2 The Story of Oleg Aleksandrovich Lavrentiev......Page 114 3.5.3 The Magnetic Thermonuclear Reactor......Page 116 3.5.4 Soviet Experiments from 1955–1969......Page 120 4.1 Introduction......Page 123 4.2 The Triumph of the Tokamak......Page 128 4.3.1 Basic Design......Page 131 4.3.2 Fundamental Tokamak Parameters......Page 135 4.3.4 Evolution of the D-Shape......Page 138 4.3.5 Divertors......Page 141 4.4 The Glory Years: The 1970s and a Change of Direction......Page 144 5.1 Introduction......Page 150 5.2 United States......Page 151 5.2.2 Adiabatic Toroidal Compressor (ATC) and Princeton Large Torus (PLT)......Page 153 5.2.3 Oak Ridge National Laboratory......Page 155 5.2.4 Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT)......Page 157 5.2.5 General Atomic......Page 160 5.2.6 Other Activities in the US......Page 163 5.3 The Soviet Programme......Page 164 6.1 Introduction......Page 172 6.3 Germany......Page 174 6.3.1 High-Confinement Mode (H-Mode)......Page 178 6.3.2 Edge-Localised Modes (ELMs)......Page 179 6.4 France......Page 181 6.5 Italy......Page 184 6.6 Other European Countries......Page 186 7.2 Japan......Page 189 7.3 South Korea......Page 192 7.5 China......Page 194 7.6 Australia......Page 199 7.7 Miscellaneous......Page 201 8.1 Introduction......Page 203 8.2 Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor (TFTR)......Page 206 8.3 Breakeven......Page 209 8.4 TFTR Continued......Page 211 8.5 Joint European Torus (JET)......Page 216 8.6 JT-60......Page 231 8.7 Conclusion......Page 236 Part III Intermezzo......Page 238 9.1 Synopsis......Page 239 9.2 Roadmap to Fusion......Page 247 9.3 Summary......Page 255 Part IV High Noon......Page 257 10.1 Introduction......Page 258 10.2 INTOR......Page 259 10.3 The Birth (Pangs) of the ITER Project......Page 261 10.4 The First ITER Design......Page 263 10.5 The Revised ITER Design......Page 266 10.6 Details of the New ITER Design......Page 271 10.7 Site Selection and Construction......Page 280 10.8 Cost......Page 285 10.9 Conclusion......Page 289 11.1 Introduction......Page 295 11.2 Alleged Advantages of the Spherical Tokamak......Page 297 11.3 Alternative Current Drive......Page 299 11.4 The START, MAST and NSTX Spherical Tokamaks......Page 303 11.5 Overview of Other Spherical Tokamaks in the World and Their Research......Page 311 11.6 Private Companies Pursuing Spherical Tokamak Research......Page 316 11.7 Some Considerations of Power Plant Design Based on the ST Concept......Page 321 11.8 Conclusion and Prospects......Page 323 12.1 Basics......Page 326 12.3 Direct and Indirect Drive......Page 330 12.4 Ignition......Page 333 12.5 Instabilities......Page 336 12.6 Fuel Capsule Design......Page 339 12.7 National Ignition Facility......Page 341 12.8 Funding of ICF in the US......Page 351 12.9 Activities in Other Countries......Page 352 12.10 Direct Drive......Page 355 12.11 Alternative Drivers and Methods......Page 358 12.12 Conclusion......Page 362 13.1 Return of the Stellarator......Page 363 13.1.1 Spatial and Classical Stellarators and Torsatrons......Page 365 13.1.2 Torsatrons at Kharkov (Ukraine)......Page 367 13.1.3 Heliacs......Page 368 13.1.5 Wendelstein 7-X......Page 369 13.1.6 Other Stellarators and Hybrid Devices......Page 375 13.2 Revival of Magnetic Mirrors......Page 377 13.2.1 The Gas Dynamic Trap......Page 378 13.2.2 Gamma-10 Experiment......Page 380 13.2.3 Other Devices......Page 381 13.2.4 Conclusion......Page 382 13.3 Revival of Research in Pinches......Page 383 14.1 Introduction......Page 384 14.2 Alternative Fuels......Page 386 14.3 Non-mainstream Magnetic Confinement Devices......Page 390 14.3.2 Field-Reversed Configuration (FRC)......Page 391 14.3.3 Spheromak......Page 392 14.3.4 Dynomak......Page 395 14.3.5 Rotamak......Page 396 14.3.6 Levitated Dipole......Page 397 14.3.7 Dense Plasma Focus (DPF)......Page 399 14.4 Cusp Confinement......Page 401 14.4.1 Picket Fence......Page 403 14.4.2 Tormac......Page 404 14.6 Inertial Electrostatic Fusion......Page 405 14.6.1 Fusor......Page 406 14.6.3 Polywell......Page 408 14.7 Magneto-Inertial Fusion (MIF)......Page 411 14.7.1 Magnetized Target Fusion (MTF)......Page 412 14.7.2 Magnetized Liner Inertial Fusion (MagLIF)......Page 413 14.8 Conclusion......Page 415 15.1 Introduction......Page 417 15.2 Commonwealth Fusion Systems (CFS)......Page 420 15.3 Privately Funded Non-mainstream Approaches......Page 422 15.3.1 Magnetized Target Fusion......Page 424 15.3.2 Inertial Electrostatic Fusion......Page 426 15.3.3 Hydrogen-Boron Fusion......Page 431 15.3.4 Inertial Confinement Fusion (ICF)......Page 435 15.3.5 Miscellaneous......Page 438 15.4 Conclusion......Page 441 16.1 Introduction......Page 444 16.2 The International Fusion Materials Irradiation Facility (IFMIF)......Page 447 16.3 The Fusion Nuclear Science Facility and Materials Plasma Exposure Experiment......Page 452 16.4 The First Wall......Page 453 16.5 The Divertor......Page 454 16.6 Tritium Breeding......Page 455 16.7 Disruptions......Page 457 16.8 Suppression of Large ELMs......Page 459 16.9 Superconducting Magnets......Page 461 16.10 Conclusion......Page 464 17.1 Introduction......Page 466 17.2 Plans of the Various ITER Members......Page 467 17.3 Prospects......Page 474 17.4 Power Plant Studies......Page 475 17.4.1 ARIES Program......Page 477 17.4.2 Power Plant Studies Outside the US......Page 480 17.5 Inertial Fusion Power Plants......Page 482 17.5.1 IFE Power Plant Design in the US......Page 485 17.5.2 Z-Pinches......Page 487 17.5.3 The Lawrence Livermore LIFE Project......Page 488 17.5.4 Efforts Outside the US......Page 491 17.6 Heavy-Ion Fusion......Page 492 17.7 Conclusion......Page 494 Part V Concluding Chapters......Page 496 18.1 Introduction......Page 497 18.2 Cost......Page 499 18.3 Painting Rosy Pictures......Page 501 18.4 Lawrence Lidsky......Page 505 18.5 Robert L. Hirsch......Page 507 18.6 Criticism of ITER......Page 508 18.7 Criticism of Other Fusion Endeavours......Page 515 18.8 Conclusion......Page 516 19.1 General Considerations......Page 518 19.2.1 Lithium, Beryllium and Lead......Page 522 19.3 Analyses of fusion’s Potential Contribution to the Energy Mix......Page 530 19.4 Price of Electricity from Fusion......Page 533 19.5 Conclusion......Page 536 20.1 Introduction......Page 539 20.2 Tritium......Page 541 20.3 Radioactive Waste......Page 544 20.4 Scarcity of Materials......Page 545 20.5 Plasma Disruptions and Quenching......Page 547 20.6 Water Usage......Page 548 20.7 Earthquakes, Floods, Storms......Page 549 20.9 Conclusion......Page 550 21.1 Introduction......Page 553 21.2 Neutron Sources......Page 555 21.3 Fusion-Fission Hybrids......Page 557 21.5 Military Aspects......Page 562 21.6 Involvement of Industry......Page 563 21.7 Conclusion......Page 564 Summary and Final Conclusion......Page 565 Glossary......Page 571 Literature......Page 583 Index......Page 598