Stigma and Discrimination Social Encounters, Identity and Space. A concept derived from HIV and AIDS related research in the high prevalence country Botswana

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Preface 1. About this Book 1.1. What is this Book About? 1.2. How Should the Book be Read? 2. Relevance of the Empirical Background 2.1. HIV and AIDS in Africa and the Provision of ARV 2.2. The Botswana Case and its Contribution to a Theory of Stigma and Discrimination 2.3. The Onset of the Study 3. Introduction: The Perspective on Stigma and Discrimination 3.1. Overview 3.1.1 Stigma and discrimination 3.1.2 Theoretical points of reference 3.2. Social change and the individual 3.2.1 Social structures and methodological individualism 3.2.2 Social change and the agentic capabilities of the individual 3.3. The individual and the inter-personal level 3.3.1 How rational choice theories fail to explain stigma and discrimination 3.4. Behaviour and rationality 3.4.1 People's influence on their routines 3.4.2 Roots in social behaviourism 3.4.3 Human conduct 3.4.4 Notions of man and their empirical accessibility 3.4.5 The demand for connectivity 3.5. Social encounters as tamers of rationality 3.6. The local and the societal level 3.6.1 Post-modern diversity, pluralism and multiplicity 3.6.2 The deconstruction of space, place and identity A spatial perspective on stigma and discrimination 4. Methodology 4.1.1 Data Collection 4.1.2 Data Analysis Inexplicable Experiences I: Miss HIV Stigma Free Part I: Stigma and Discrimination. Towards an Integrative Concept? 1. Introduction: Reasons for a New Concept for Stigma and Discrimination 1.1. Notes on the common use of 'stigmatisation' and 'discrimination' 1.2. A brief review of the discourse about stigma and the detection of a conceptual gap 2. Works on Stigma: Achievements and Shortfalls 2.1. Erving Goffman and the normative approach 2.2. Social approaches to stigma 3. Works on Discrimination 3.1. The theories of 'social identity' and 'self categorisation' 3.2. Stereotypes, prejudices, and inter-personal discrimination 3.3. Stereotypes and the agentic role of the individual 3.4. Economics of discrimination, ethnic differentiation, and rational choice 3.5. First steps to an integrative concept of stigma and discrimination 4. Conclusion #1: Reasons for Developing a New Concept of Stigma and Discrimination 4.1. Explanatory Gaps 4.2. Confusion in terminology 4.3. Stigma and discrimination: Towards a neutral terminology 4.4. Main conclusion Inexplicable Experiences II: 'Accepting Oneself' 1. HIV is an Abstract Disease 2. An Intellectual Challenge; Door Opener for Deception 3. 'Positive Living' and 'Accepting Oneself' Part II: Stigma and Discrimination: About People Interpreting Attributes in Social Encounters 1. Towards a Concept of Stigma and Discrimination 1.1. Who stigmatises and who discriminates? Or what if there is no word for stigma? 1.2. When do we use 'stigmatisation' and when do we use 'discrimination'? 2. Part IIa: At the Level of the Individual: Experiences 2.1. How to describe stigma? 2.1.1 Why stigmata are not always negative 2.1.2 Stigma in social encounters 2.1.3 Stigmata have the capacity to impair social interaction 2.1.4 How social beings assess stigma in reference to social encounters 2.1.5 Coping with a stigma means changing its social relevance 2.1.6 Self-efficacy, an important condition for coping 2.2. Stigma: When the mind regards an attribute as a special constituent of the self 2.2.1 Mind, self and society 2.2.2 Stigma-related behaviour, experience and rational behaviour planning 2.2.3 Support from more recent psychology 2.3. Conclusion: Stigma at the level of the individual 2.4. How to describe discrimination? 2.4.1 Discrimination in social encounters 2.4.2 Attribute-based discrimination 2.4.3 Practical discrimination; a lack of experience in handling an attribute 2.4.4 Category-based discrimination 2.4.5 Individuating discrimination and the agentic role of the non-bearers 2.5. Conclusion: Discrimination at the Level of the Individual 3. Part IIb: At the Inter-personal Level: Social Encounters and Interaction 3.1. Introducing the inter-personal level 3.1.1 Between the stigmatised and those who discriminate 3.1.2 Social Encounters and Interaction 3.1.3 Acting or behaving – Or why not both? 3.1.4 Rationality and social behaviour in the sequence of social encounters 3.2. Conclusion: Social encounters 4. Part IIc: At the Societal Level: Identities 4.1. Identity: Presenting and representing 4.1.1 A look at the development of the identity discourse 4.1.2 Identity and the limits of the constructivist paradigm 4.1.3 The relation between objects and their representations 4.1.4 Recapitulating identity 5. Conclusion #2: A Model of Stigma and Discrimination 5.1. People interpreting attributes in social encounters 5.1.1 The role of social encounters 5.1.2 Stigmata: not always negative 5.1.3 How people interpret attributes 5.2. Stigma and how stigmatisation occurs 5.2.1 Victim-blaming? 5.2.2 Coping with a stigma 5.3. How discrimination occurs 5.3.1 The basic experience that others have different attitudes 5.3.2 Discrimination as a function of experience 5.3.3 Discrimination in the scope of prosecution and morality 5.4. Identity – The key to the societal level 5.4.1 Two approaches to identities 5.4.2 Identities and correspondence 5.4.3 Social identities and narration 5.4.4 Social identity - a common element for stigma and discrimination 5.4.5 Discrimination and individuated perceptions 5.4.6 (Self-)identity and the agentic capability of the individual 5.5. The societal perspective, consequences and the question of interventions Inexplicable Experiences III: Stigma; a Spatial Parameter? 1. Brief Characterisation of the Research Sites 1.1. Old Naledi 1.2. Letlhakeng and Tshane 1.2.1 The Kalahari basin and its environmental conditions for agriculture 1.2.2 Letlhakeng 1.2.3 Tshane 1.3. Life in the Research Sites 2. The sites and their conditions with regard to HIV and AIDS 3. Stigma as a spatial parameter 4. Time-shifted processes of ARV adaptation Part III: The Geography of Stigma and Discrimination 1. A Collection of Ideas Concerning Space 1.1. Spanning spaces, conceptualising spatial units 1.1.1 Re-centring the individual in the body 1.1.2 Third spaces 1.1.3 More spaces 1.1.4 Multiple spaces 1.1.5 Space will be place 1.2. The bodily subject in current social situations 1.3. An approximation to the space of stigma and discrimination 1.3.1 Absolute space, physical space and experience 1.3.2 Reflection on 'social space', distance and dimensions 1.3.3 Bourdieu and the relation between social and physical space 1.3.4 Spaces versus systems of categorisation – Thinking relationally 1.3.5 Conceiving social dimensions 2. Stigma and Discrimination – A Spatial Perspective 2.1. The space of stigma and discrimination 2.1.1 The foundation of social dimensions 2.1.2 The space of stigma and discrimination 2.1.3 The expansion of physical spaces into a social dimension 2.2. Upscaling stigma and discrimination 2.2.1 Regionalisation, localisation and situation control 2.2.2 Regionalisation from a multi-level perspective 3. Conclusion #3: The Geography of Stigma and Discrimination 3.1. Geographies of rejection and integration 3.2. The space of stigma and discrimination and lived worlds 3.3. Yields, implications and insights deriving from a socio-spatial perspective Explaining the Inexplicable 1. Spatial Differences in Stigmatisation and Discrimination 1.1. The space of HIV 1.1.1 The experience of being sick 1.1.2 Explanations of “the illness” 1.1.3 Experiences that derive from being HIV-positive 1.1.4 The scales HIV and AIDS 1.2. Lived worlds of HIV 1.3. Past and present regionalisations of HIV in Botswana 1.3.1 Early prevention campaigns 1.3.2 Current regionalisations of HIV and AIDS 1.4. Spatial differences in stigma and discrimination 1.4.1 Individualisation and the messages of HIV 1.4.2 Poverty and stigmatisation 1.4.3 How Old Naledi facilitates prejudices 1.4.4 Leabaneng Masedi's localisation and situation control 1.4.5 Fear of the village 1.4.6 Confidentiality and social control in the villages 1.4.7 The advantage of the village 1.4.8 HIV and festivals 1.5. Conclusion: Different degrees of stigmatisation 1.5.1 The villages versus Old Naledi 1.5.2 High variation in attitudes in Old Naledi 1.5.3 Spatial differences and the roll-out of the ARV scheme 2. 'Accepting Oneself' and Interventions against Stigma and Discrimination 2.1. 'Accepting oneself' and a lack of experience 2.2. The importance of self-help initiatives 2.3. Does MASA solve the problem of HIV in Botswana? 2.4. Suggestions for a new approach to prevention campaigns 3. The Miss HIV Stigma Free Beauty Contest: A Contemporary Response References