Antitrust Analysis of Online Sales Platforms & Copyright Limitations and Exceptions

Description

This book gathers international and national reports from across the globe on key questions in the field of antitrust and intellectual property. The first part discusses the application of competition law to online sales platforms, which is increasingly a focus for anti-trust authorities around the world. A detailed international report explores which are the major challenges for competition law generated by the growth of online platforms. It provides an excellent comparative study of this complex and challenging subject. The second part of the book gathers contributions from various jurisdictions on the topic “To what extent do current exclusions and limitations to copyright strike a fair balance between the rights of owners and fair use by private individuals and others ?" This section presents an international report, which offers an unparalleled comparative analysis of this topic, bringing together common themes and contrasting the various national provisions dealing with exceptions to copyright, amongst other things. The book also includes the resolutions passed by the General Assembly of the International League of Competition Law (LIDC) following a debate on each of these topics, which include proposed solutions and recommendations. The LIDC is a long-standing international association that focuses on the interface between competition law and intellectual property law, including unfair competition issues. Preface Contents List of Contributors Abbreviations Part I: Anti-trust Analysis of Online Sales Platforms 1: International Report 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Positive Law 1.2.1 The Relevant Competition Rules 1.2.1.1 The Material Law 1.2.1.2 Efficiency, Authorisation and Exemptions General Aspects Efficiency as Justification to Exempt the Repression Against Unfair Competition or Free Rider Conduct 1.2.1.3 The Approach to the Online Sales Raised from Traditional Economy 1.2.1.4 The Major Decisions 1.2.2 Market Definition 1.2.3 Criterion for Market Power or Dominant Position 1.2.4 Types of Infringement 1.2.4.1 General Approach of the Competition Law 1.2.4.2 Retail Price Maintenance (RPM) and Refusal to Deal or Supply 1.2.4.3 IPR Restrictions 1.2.4.4 Other Restraints 1.2.5 Precedents Regarding Abuse of Dominant Position in the Area of Online Sales Platforms 1.2.6 Most Favoured Nation (MFN) Conditions in the Context of Online Sales Platforms 1.2.7 Compensatory Damages or Unfair Competition Damages in Cases of Antitrust Violations and of Non-compliance with a Consent Decree or Cease-and-Desist Agreement 1.3 Common Market, Custom Union and Free Trade Market 1.4 The Competition Law in the Context of the New Economy 1.4.1 Application of General or Specific Criteria to the New Economy 1.4.2 Applicable Rules and Criteria to Restriction of Online Sales 1.4.2.1 Bans on Sales Through Third-Party Internet Platforms in Selective Distribution Systems General Aspects of Selective Distribution Anticompetitive Restrictions Related to Online Sales in Selective Distribution Systems Lawful or Accepted Restrictions Related to the Selective Distribution System Through Online Platform Sales 1.4.2.2 Trademarks and the Use of Third-Party Platforms 1.5 A Criterion to Structure Definition of Online Platform Markets 1.6 Consent Decrees and Cease-and-Desist Agreements 1.7 Conclusion 2: Australia 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Australian Competition Law Legislation: Competition and Consumer Act 2010 2.2.1 Legislation and Proposed Amendments 2.2.2 Substantial Lessening of Competition 2.2.3 Immunity and Efficiency 2.2.4 ‘Agreements’ Under Section 45 of the CCA 2.3 Criterion for Market Definition and Market Power 2.3.1 Market Definition 2.3.2 Market Power 2.4 Section 46 ‘Misuse of Market Power’ in General 2.4.1 Leveraging Market Power 2.4.2 Cases 2.4.3 Review and Changes 2.5 Integration 2.5.1 Merger Law 2.5.2 Bottleneck Issue: National Access Regime Law and Section 46 2.5.3 Exclusionary Conduct and Exclusive Dealing: Control over Digital Information 2.6 Bargaining Power 2.6.1 Section 46 ‘Misuse of Market Power’ and Bargaining Power 2.6.2 Collective Bargaining 2.6.3 Bargaining Power and Consumer Law 2.7 Vertical Restraints: RPM and Exclusive Dealings 2.7.1 RPM 2.7.2 Exclusive Dealing: Non-price Vertical Restraints 2.7.3 International Price Discrimination: Geo-blocking 2.8 Enforcement and Liability 2.8.1 Enforceable Undertakings 2.8.2 Informal Agreements 2.8.3 Private Actions 2.8.4 General Liability 2.8.5 Agency Issues 2.9 IP Protection: Section 51(3) of the CCA 2.10 Conclusion 3: Austria 3.1 The Competition Law Context of Online Sales Platforms in Austria 3.1.1 Legal Background 3.1.2 Voidness 3.1.3 Private Enforcement 3.1.4 Relevant Market 3.1.5 Case Law Concerning Online Sales Platforms 3.1.5.1 Restrictions on Internet Sales 3.1.5.2 Hotel Booking Platforms 3.1.5.3 Online Sales Platforms 3.1.5.4 Commission’s E-Commerce Sector Inquiry 3.2 Antitrust Issues Generated by the Growth of Online Sales Platforms 4: Belgium 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Background: Assessment of Online Marketplaces at the EU Level 4.3 Belgian Legislation and Jurisprudence Related to Online Sales 4.3.1 Legislation 4.3.1.1 Restrictive Competition Practices 4.3.1.2 Mergers 4.3.1.3 Private Enforcement 4.3.1.4 The Belgian Competition Authority 4.3.2 Case Law 4.3.2.1 The Immoweb Decision Market Definition and Market Position of Immoweb Restrictive Competition Practices Comment on the Immoweb Decision 4.3.2.2 Merger Control Online and Offline Sales Belong to Separate Product Markets Online and Offline Sales Belong to the Same Product Market Cases Where Market for Online and Offline Sales Left Open 4.4 Restrictions of Online Sales and Selective Distribution 4.5 Conclusion and Recommendations for the Future 5: Brazil 5.1 The Brazilian Antitrust System 5.2 Internet and Antitrust Assessments 5.2.1 Relevant Market 5.2.2 Market Concentration 5.2.3 Exercise of Market Power 5.2.4 Economic Efficiencies 5.3 Conclusion 6: France 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Implementation 6.2.1 Restriction of Online Sales 6.2.1.1 Position of the French Competition Authority 6.2.1.2 Position of French Courts 6.2.2 Abuse of a Dominant Position 6.2.2.1 The Relevant Market 6.2.2.2 The Dominant Position 6.2.2.3 The Abuse 6.3 Consent Decrees and Cease Agreements 6.4 Private Enforcement 6.5 Conclusion 7: Germany 7.1 Introduction 7.2 German and European Antitrust Law 7.2.1 Governing Law 7.2.1.1 Restriction of Competition 7.2.1.2 Abuse of Dominant Position 7.2.1.3 Mergers 7.2.2 Definition of the Relevant Market 7.2.3 Enforcement of the Law 7.2.3.1 Administrative Procedure 7.2.3.2 Civil Lawsuits 7.3 Vertical Restraints for the Online Sales Market 7.3.1 Governing Law 7.3.2 Restriction of Online Sales via Web Shops 7.3.3 Ban on Distribution via Third-Party Platforms in Selective Distribution Systems 7.3.3.1 Definition and Legal Specialities 7.3.3.2 Restriction of Competition 7.3.3.3 Exemptions 7.3.3.4 Conclusion 7.3.4 Most-Favoured-Nation Conditions 7.4 Conclusion 8: Hungary 8.1 The Competition Law Context of Online Sales 8.1.1 Competition Law Framework 8.1.2 Sector-Specific Regulation 8.1.3 National and Supranational Competition Law 8.1.4 Competition Case Law 8.1.5 Guidelines on Vertical Restraints 8.1.6 Sector Inquiry 8.1.6.1 Focus of the Inquiry 8.1.6.2 Agency Agreements 8.1.6.3 MFN Clauses 8.2 Market Analysis in Case of Online Sales 8.2.1 Market Definition in Case of Online Sales 8.2.2 Market Power in Case of Online Sales 8.3 Legal Analysis in Case of Online Sales 8.3.1 Types of Infringements 8.3.2 Exclusionary Practices 8.3.2.1 Prohibition of Exclusionary Practices 8.3.2.2 Structural Prerequisite for Exclusionary Practices 8.3.2.3 “Safe Harbor” for Exclusionary Practices 8.3.3 Use of Trademarks 8.3.4 Efficiency 8.4 Online Sales in Selective Distribution Systems 8.4.1 The Definition of Selective Distribution 8.4.2 Block Exemption and Individual Exemption of Selective Distribution 8.4.3 Restriction of the Use of Online Sales Platforms in a Selective Distribution System 8.5 Cooperation with Authorities 8.5.1 Commitment Decision 8.5.2 Settlement Procedure 8.5.3 Effects of Commitment and Settlement 8.6 Private Enforcement in Case of Online Sales 8.6.1 General Considerations 8.6.2 Punitive Damages 8.6.3 Use of Competition Law as Defense 8.7 Applying Competition Law to the New Economy 9: Italy 9.1 Background 9.2 Substantive Law 9.3 Restriction of Online sales 9.3.1 Restrictions Considered as Passive Sales 9.3.2 Objective Justification for Online Sales Restrictions 9.3.3 Restrictions Justified to Protect the Quality of the Distribution and to Prevent Free Riding 9.4 Online Sales and Selective Distribution 9.5 MFN Clauses and the Definition of Relevant Market 9.6 European Commission’s E-Commerce Sector Inquiry 9.7 Geo-blocking 9.8 Conclusions 10: Sweden 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Positive Law 10.2.1 Swedish Competition Law in Overview 10.2.2 Definition of the Relevant Market 10.2.3 Cases Dealing with Internet-Related Markets 10.2.3.1 Cases on Retail Price Maintenance (RPM) 10.2.3.2 Cases on Most Favoured Nation (MFN) Conditions 10.2.3.3 Cases on Exclusionary Behaviour 10.2.4 Compensatory Damages Arising from Competition Law Infringements 10.2.5 Competition Law as a Defence Against Breach of Contracts 10.3 Competition Law in the Context of the New Economy 10.3.1 The Choice Between General or Specific Criteria in Competition Law 10.3.2 Efficiency as a Defence in Antitrust Cases 10.4 The Structures of the Markets 10.4.1 Vertical Restraints in Online Markets 10.4.2 Agreements of Minor Importance 10.4.3 Market Power in the Area of Online Sales Platforms 10.5 Voluntary Commitments and Their Effects on the Development of the Law 10.5.1 Burden of Proof 11: Switzerland 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Legal Framework 11.2.1 The Cartel Act 11.2.2 The General Notices of the Competition Commission 11.3 Restrictions to Competition 11.3.1 The General Rules of the Cartel Act 11.3.2 Applicable Rules to Online Sales 11.3.2.1 Online Sales Restrictions 11.3.2.2 Most Favoured Nation Clauses 11.3.2.3 Online Sales and Selective Distribution Definition of Selective Distribution Unlawful Online Sales Restrictions in Selective Distribution Systems Free Riding as Justification on Grounds of Economic Efficiency Admissible Restraints of Online Sales in a Selective Distribution System 11.4 Abuse of Dominant Position 11.4.1 The General Rules 11.4.2 Specific Rules Applicable to Third Party Online Platforms 11.5 The Definition of the Relevant Market 11.5.1 In General 11.5.2 The Relevant Market in E-Commerce 11.6 Procedure and Sanctions 11.6.1 Civil Procedure 11.6.2 Administrative Procedure 11.6.3 Settlement Agreements 11.7 Conclusion 12: United Kingdom 12.1 The Structure of UK Competition Law Regime 12.1.1 The Competition Act 1998 and Other Competition Statutes in the UK 12.1.2 Enforcement, Concurrency and Consequences of Breach 12.1.3 Relationship with EU Law 12.1.4 Relevant Market 12.1.5 Market Power 12.2 Online Sales: A New Challenge? 12.2.1 Introduction 12.2.2 E-Commerce Sector Inquiry 12.2.2.1 Resale Price Maintenance (RPM) 12.2.2.2 Most Favoured Nation (MFN) 12.2.2.3 Restriction on Online Sales 12.2.2.4 Licensing Rights of Digital Content 12.3 Other Issues 12.3.1 Market Definition 12.3.2 Facilitating Collusion Part II: Copyright Limitations and Exceptions 13: International Report 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Background 13.2.1 The Key Challenges Related to the Question 13.2.2 Legal Background 13.2.3 Preliminary Remarks About the Wording of the Question 13.2.4 Preliminary Remarks About the Scope of the Question 13.3 Discussion of the Various Issues Related to the Question 13.3.1 Role and Importance of the Three-Step Test 13.3.2 Closed vs Open-Ended List of Exceptions and Limitations 13.3.3 Missing Exceptions? 13.3.4 Restrictive Interpretation Versus Flexible Interpretation 13.3.5 Obligatory Versus Optional; Unwaivable Versus Waivable 13.3.6 The Nature of the Rights Derogated: Reproduction and Communication Distinguished or Not 13.3.7 The Interaction Between Exceptions and Moral Rights 13.3.8 The Interaction Between Exceptions and Technological Measures 13.3.9 Catch-All Exception 13.3.10 Impact of Fundamental Rights Other Than Copyright 13.3.11 Right to Compensation 13.3.12 The Making of Temporary Copies 13.3.13 Exceptions Allowing the Freedom of Expression 13.3.14 Subject Matter Excluded from the Benefit of Copyright Protection 13.3.15 Education Exceptions 13.3.16 Big-Data-Related Activities 13.3.17 Exhaustion of Copyright 13.3.18 Panorama Exception 13.3.19 Reprography, Private Copying and Other Private Uses 13.3.20 Global Assessment of the Balance Between Copyright Owners’ Rights and Users’ Rights 13.4 Conclusions and Resolutions 13.4.1 Conclusion 1 13.4.2 Conclusion 2 13.4.3 Conclusion 3 13.4.4 Conclusion 4 13.4.5 Conclusion 5 13.4.6 Conclusion 6 14: Austria 14.1 Overview of the Austrian System 14.2 Moral Rights 14.3 Objectives 14.4 Fundamental Rights 14.5 The “Triple Test” 14.6 Exceptions in the Austrian Copyright Act 14.6.1 Exceptions for Temporary Acts of Reproduction 14.6.2 Exceptions for Specific Content 14.6.3 Exceptions for Private Copies 14.6.4 Exceptions for Education 14.6.5 Exceptions for Research 14.6.6 Exceptions for the Freedom of Expression 14.6.7 The Panorama Exception 14.6.8 Exceptions for the Preservation of Cultural Heritage 14.6.9 Exceptions for Public Security 14.6.10 Exceptions for Persons with a Disability 14.7 Technological Protection Measures 14.8 The Principle of Exhaustion 14.9 Flexibility of the Austrian System 14.10 Conclusion 15: Belgium 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Historical Development of Exceptions in Belgian Law 15.3 General Considerations Relating to Exceptions 15.3.1 Lawful Publication Condition 15.3.2 Type of Exceptions 15.3.3 Closed and Mandatory List 15.4 Triple Test 15.5 Exceptions 15.5.1 Exception for Temporary Acts of Reproduction 15.5.2 Social Institutions 15.5.3 People with Disabilities 15.5.4 Libraries, Museums and Archives 15.5.5 Education and Research Purposes 15.5.5.1 Exception of Quotation 15.5.5.2 Confection of an Anthology 15.5.5.3 Exception of Reproduction 15.5.5.4 School Activities 15.5.5.5 E-Learning 15.5.5.6 Public Examination 15.5.6 Current Events 15.5.7 Quotation 15.5.8 Parody 15.5.9 Privacy Purpose 15.5.9.1 Exception to Copyright Law 15.5.9.2 The Compensation Before the Hewlett-Packard Belgium SPRL v Reprobel Decision The Case Hewlett-Packard Belgium SPRL v Reprobel 15.5.10 Panorama Exception 15.6 Special Issues 15.6.1 Data Mining 15.6.2 Big Data 15.7 Technical Protection Measures 15.8 Exhaustion of Copyright 15.9 Intellectual Property and Fundamental Rights 15.10 Conclusion 16: Brazil 16.1 Introduction: Protection of Copyrights and Exceptions in Brazil 16.2 Exceptions to Copyrights Under Brazilian Law: An Overview 16.3 Exceptions to Copyrights and Moral Rights of the Author 16.4 Exceptions and Technical Devices 16.5 Three-Step Rule in the Brazilian Copyright Act 16.6 Overview on Specific Exceptions 16.6.1 Temporary Acts of Reproduction 16.6.2 Freedom of Speech 16.6.3 Public Speeches 16.6.4 Educational Environment 16.6.5 Freedom of Panorama 16.6.6 Research and Development 16.6.7 Private Copy 16.7 Exhaustion of Copyrights 16.8 Conclusions 17: Czech Republic 17.1 The Czech Copyright Act and the Author’s Work Protected by Copyright 17.2 The Delimitations, Exceptions, and Restrictions of the Protection by the Czech Copyright Act 17.3 The Czech UK Three-Step Test 17.4 Specific Aspects of Czech Exceptions and Restrictions 17.4.1 Exhaustive List of Exceptions and Restrictions 17.4.2 Selected Exceptions and Restrictions from the Exhaustive List 17.4.3 Compensation in Favor of the Copyright Owner 17.5 Assessment of the Czech System of Copyright Protection 17.6 Conclusion 18: France 18.1 Introduction 18.2 The Protection Granted by Copyright to the Authors of Works of the Mind 18.2.1 Works of the Mind Protected 18.2.2 Rights Conferred to the Authors 18.2.2.1 Moral Right 18.2.2.2 Exclusive Rights 18.3 Exclusions and Limitations to Copyright Under French Law 18.3.1 Nature and Scope of the Exceptions to Copyright 18.3.2 General Principles 18.3.2.1 The Exhaustive List of Copyright Exceptions Set Forth in Article L. 122-5 of the IPC 18.3.2.2 The Strict Interpretation of the Exceptions 18.3.2.3 The Transposition of the “Triple Test” into French Law 18.3.3 The Specific Regime and Logic Behind Each Exception 18.3.3.1 Representation Within the Family Circle 18.3.3.2 Private Copying 18.3.3.3 Transient Copies 18.3.3.4 Speeches, Public Lectures, Current Economic, Political or Religious Topics 18.3.3.5 Freedom of Expression 18.3.3.6 Reproductions in “Another Work” 18.3.3.7 Teaching and Scientific Research 18.3.3.8 “Data Mining” and “Data Bases” 18.3.3.9 The “Panorama Exception” 18.3.3.10 Persons with Disabilities 18.3.3.11 Libraries, Museums, and Archives 18.4 Conclusions: France Is Favorable to Authors and Only Slowly and Progressively Adapts Its Legislation to International and EU Standards 19: Germany 19.1 Introduction 19.2 Rights of the Copyright Proprietor 19.3 Limitations and Exceptions to the Protection 19.3.1 System of Exceptions 19.3.1.1 Colliding Interests 19.3.1.2 Compensation 19.3.1.3 Enforcement of Exceptions 19.3.1.4 Impact of Contractual Agreements 19.3.2 Triple Test (and Colliding Interests) 19.3.2.1 The Triple Test and Legislative Power 19.3.2.2 The Triple Test and Judicial Power 19.3.3 Examples 19.3.3.1 Exhaustion of the Right of Distribution with Special Regard to Digital Works 19.3.3.2 Freedom of Expression and Freedom of Press 19.3.3.3 Science and Education 19.3.3.4 Exception for Big Data and Data Mining? 19.3.3.5 Temporary Copies with Special Regard to Streaming 19.3.3.6 Private Use 19.3.3.7 Panorama Exception 19.4 Conclusion 20: Hungary 20.1 Introduction 20.2 Closed List of Exceptions 20.3 Exceptions and Fundamental Rights 20.3.1 Education and Research 20.3.1.1 Education 20.3.1.2 Research 20.3.1.3 List of Exceptions Supporting Education and Research 20.3.2 Access to Culture and Knowledge 20.3.2.1 List of Exceptions Supporting Access to Culture and Knowledge 20.3.2.2 Panorama Exception 20.3.3 Freedom of Expression and the Right to Receive and Impart Information 20.3.3.1 Quotation 20.3.3.2 Permitted Uses of Public Lectures, Similar Works, and Political Speeches 20.3.3.3 Making Use of Articles on Daily Events and Other Current Events of Public Interests 20.3.3.4 Exemption from Copyright Protection 20.3.4 Privacy and Private Use 20.3.4.1 List of Exceptions Supporting Privacy and Private Use 20.3.4.2 Private Copying 20.3.5 Needs of People with Disabilities 20.3.6 Preservation of Cultural Heritage 20.3.7 Public Security 20.4 Free Use and Economic Rights 20.4.1 Quotation 20.4.2 Borrowing 20.4.3 Adaptation by Schools 20.4.4 Private Copying by a Natural Person Pursuing Private Purposes 20.4.5 Permitted Acts Carried Out by Knowledge Repositories as Beneficiaries of Specific Copyright Exceptions 20.4.6 Temporary and Incidental Digital Reproduction of Software and Databases, Permitted Free Uses of Legally Acquired Copies, and Methods of Utilization That Do Not Require Authorization 20.4.7 Free Use of Public Lectures, Political Speeches, Similar Works, and Reports of Current Events 20.4.8 Displaying Works as Scenery, Stage Property, and Costumes 20.4.9 Reproduction of Visual Works for Advertising Purposes 20.4.10 Public Performance of Works 20.4.11 Temporary Acts of Reproduction 20.5 Free Use and Moral Rights 20.6 Technical Protection Measures 20.7 Compensation 20.8 Exhaustion of Copyright Protection 20.9 Conclusion 21: Italy 21.1 Triple Test Provision 21.2 Exceptions to Copyright Protection 21.3 The Relation Between Fundamental Rights and Exceptions to Copyright Protection 21.4 Interpretation of Exceptions to Copyright Protection 21.5 Nature and Extension of the Exceptions to Copyright Protection 21.6 Exceptions Relating to “Reproduction Right” and “Right of Communication to the Public” 21.7 Exceptions and Moral Rights of the Author 21.8 Technological Protection Measures 21.9 “Catch All” Exceptions 21.10 Abstractions of the Copyright Exceptions 21.11 Compensation for Exceptions to Copyright Protection 21.12 Exceptions for Temporary Acts of Reproduction 21.13 The Freedom of Expression 21.14 Political and News Reporting Exceptions, Other Exceptions Justified by Reasons of Public Interest 21.15 Exception for Purposes of Education 21.16 Exception Supporting Big-Data-Related Activities 21.17 Copyright Exhaustion 21.18 Panorama Exception 21.19 Private Copies 21.20 Conclusions 22: Poland 22.1 Introduction 22.2 List of Exceptions 22.3 Strict or Flexible Character of Permissible Use of Works 22.4 Mandatory or Optional Character of Permissible Use of Works 22.5 The Scope of Permissible Use of Works 22.6 The Author’s Moral Rights 22.7 The Technological Protection Measures 22.8 ‘Catch All’ Exception 22.9 The Fundamental Rights in Permissible Use of Works 22.10 Compensation for Permissible Use of Works 22.11 Temporary or Incidental Reproduction of Works 22.12 The Freedom of Expression: Right of Quotation 22.13 Distribution of Press Content 22.14 Permissible Use for the Purpose of Teaching 22.15 Exceptions Supporting Big-Data-Related Activities 22.16 Exhaustion of a Right 22.17 Panorama Exception 22.18 Private Copies 22.19 Overall Assessment 23: Romania 23.1 Introduction 23.2 The Triple Test in Romanian Copyright Law 23.3 The Closed List of Exceptions Under Romanian Copyright Law 23.4 Fundamental Rights as a Basis for Creating the Exceptions and Limitations 23.5 Exceptions and Limitations to Copyright Need to Be Interpreted Narrowly 23.6 Relevance of Noncommercial Purpose and Use by an Individual 23.7 The Mandatory Character of the Exceptions 23.8 The Rights Covered by the Exceptions and Limitations 23.9 Relationship with Moral Rights 23.10 Technological Protection Measures and the Benefit of the Exceptions and Limitations 23.11 No “Catch-All” Exception Under Romanian Copyright Law 23.12 Relationship with Other Fundamental Rights 23.13 Compensation to Copyright Owner 23.14 Temporary Acts of Reproduction 23.15 Exceptions and Limitations to Copyright and the Freedom of Expression 23.16 Content Excluded from Copyright Protection 23.17 Uses Permitted in Education 23.18 Uses Permitted in Research 23.19 Exhaustion of Copyright 23.20 The Panorama Exception in Romanian Copyright Law 23.21 The Private Copy Exception 23.22 Overall Assessment 24: Switzerland 24.1 Introduction 24.2 Exclusive Rights 24.3 System of Copyright Exceptions 24.3.1 Triple Test 24.3.2 Closed List 24.3.3 Mandatory Nature of the Exceptions 24.3.4 Interpretation 24.3.5 Scope 24.3.5.1 Commercial/Noncommercial Uses 24.3.5.2 Ratione Personae 24.3.5.3 Exclusive Rights Concerned 24.3.6 Impact of Exceptions on Moral Rights 24.3.7 DRMs vs. Exceptions 24.3.8 Compensation 24.4 Exceptions 24.4.1 Private Copy 24.4.2 Temporary Reproduction 24.4.3 Freedom-of-Expression Related Exceptions 24.4.4 Educational Exception 24.5 Exhaustion of Copyright 24.6 Conclusion 25: United Kingdom 25.1 The System of the InfoSoc Directive 25.2 UK Exceptions at a Glance: The 2014 Reform 25.3 The (Nonexistent) UK Three-Step Test 25.4 Specific Aspects of UK Copyright Exceptions 25.4.1 Beneficiaries of UK Copyright Exceptions 25.4.2 Subject Matter of Exceptions 25.4.3 Conditions of Exceptions 25.4.4 Purpose of the Use 25.4.4.1 Criticism or Review 25.4.4.2 News Reporting 25.4.5 Fair Dealing 25.4.6 Other Considerations 25.4.6.1 Contractual Override 25.4.6.2 Moral Rights The Case of Parody 25.4.6.3 Technological Protection Measures 25.5 Assessment of the UK System of Copyright Exceptions 25.6 Conclusion