The politics of adoption : international perspectives on law, policy and practice

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Acknowledgements Introduction Contents Part IAdoption, Society and the Law: The Common Law Context 1 Adoption: Concepts, Principles and Social Construct 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Definitional Matters and Related Concepts 1.2.1 Legal Definition 1.2.2 Concepts 1.3 Social Construct 1.3.1 Adoption and the Inheritance Motive 1.3.2 Adoption and the Kinship Motive 1.3.3 Adoption and the Allegiance Motive 1.3.4 Adoption and the ‘Extra Pair of Hands’ Motive 1.3.5 Adoption and the Welfare Motive 1.3.6 Adoption and the Childless Couple Motive 1.3.7 Adoption and the Social Conformity Motive 1.3.8 Adoption and the Right to an Identity Motive 1.4 Adoption in England: Historical Context 1.4.1 The Common Law: Parental Rights and Duties 1.4.2 The Poor Laws 1.4.3 Pressures for Change; End of the Nineteenth Century 1.5 Adoption Legislation: Evolving Principles and Policy 1.5.1 The Adoption Act 1926 1.5.2 The Adoption of Children (Regulation) Act 1939 1.5.3 The Adoption Act 1949 1.5.4 The Children Act 1975 1.5.5 The Adoption Act 1976 1.5.6 The Children Act 1989 1.5.7 Adoption (Intercountry Aspects) Act 1999 1.5.8 The Adoption and Children Act 2002 1.6 Legal Context: Evolution of a Modern Statutory Process 1.6.1 The ‘Contract’ 1.6.2 The Parties 1.6.3 The Principles 1.6.4 Contract or Gift Relationship 1.7 Conclusion 2 The Changing Face of Adoption 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Modern Adoption Trends in the United Kingdom 2.2.1 From Traditional Model to Modern Variants 2.2.2 Causes of Change 2.2.3 Consequences for the Adoption Process 2.3 Family Adoption 2.3.1 Trends in Annual Orders 2.3.2 Adoption by Birth Parent and Spouse 2.3.3 Adoption by Grandparent 2.3.4 Other Relative Adoptions 2.3.5 The Welfare Principle, the Blood Link and Family Adoptions 2.4 Agency Adoption 2.4.1 Trends in Annual Orders 2.4.2 Voluntary Society Adoptions 2.4.3 Child Care Adoptions 2.4.4 The Welfare Principle and Agency Adoptions 2.5 Intercountry Adoptions 2.5.1 Trends in Annual Orders 2.5.2 Transracial Adoptions 2.5.3 The Welfare Principle and Intercountry Adoptions 2.6 A Coherent Legal Model for Adoption Practice 2.6.1 Classification of Adoption by Type 2.6.2 Social Role 2.6.3 Legal Functions 2.7 Conclusion Part IIDeveloping International Benchmarks for Modern Adoption Law 3 The Legal Functions of Adoption 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Regulating the Adoption Process 3.2.1 The Adoption Process 3.2.2 Role of the Judiciary or Other Determining Body 3.2.3 Role of Administrative Agencies 3.3 Thresholds for Entering the Adoption Process: Eligibility and Suitability Criteria 3.3.1 The Child 3.3.2 The Birth Parent/s 3.3.3 The Adopters 3.4 Pre-placement Counselling 3.4.1 The Birth Parent/s 3.4.2 The Child 3.4.3 The Adopters 3.5 Placement Rights and Responsibilities 3.5.1 Placement Decision 3.5.2 Placement Supervision 3.6 The Hearing and Issue of Order/s 3.6.1 Where Consent Is Available 3.6.2 Where Consent Is Not Available 3.6.3 The Orders Available 3.7 Thresholds for Exiting the Adoption Process 3.7.1 The Welfare Interests of the Child 3.8 The Outcome of the Adoption Process 3.8.1 Adoption Orders and Third Party Applicants 3.8.2 Adoption Orders and First Party Applicants 3.8.3 Adoption Orders and Relatives 3.8.4 Other Orders 3.9 The Effect of an Adoption Order 3.9.1 Effect on the Child 3.9.2 Effect on the Birth Parent/s 3.9.3 Effect on the Adopters 3.10 Post-adoption Support Services 3.10.1 Child Care and Protection Adoptions 3.11 Information Disclosure, Tracing and Re-unification Services 3.11.1 Information Rights 3.11.2 Information Disclosure Duties 3.11.3 Tracing and Re-unification Services 3.12 Adoption Within Family Law 3.12.1 Adoption in Its Traditional Family Law Context 3.12.2 Adoption in the Context of Modern Public Law Proceedings 3.12.3 Adoption in the Context of Modern Private Law Proceedings 3.12.4 Adoption and Contemporary Family Law Principles 3.13 Conclusion 4 Adoption, the Conventions and the European Court of Human Rights 4.1 Introduction 4.2 International Bodies with a Brief for Adoption Policy 4.2.1 The European Parliament 4.2.2 The Council of Europe 4.2.3 The United Nations 4.3 International Courts, Regulatory Bodies Etc. 4.3.1 The European Court of Justice (CJEU) 4.3.2 The European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) 4.3.3 The Human Rights Committee (HRC) 4.3.4 Human Rights Commissions 4.3.5 Other 4.4 International Treaties, Conventions and Protocols Etc. 4.4.1 The European Convention on the Adoption of Children 2008 4.4.2 Optional Protocol on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution, and Child Pornography 2000 (Sex Trafficking Protocol) 2000 4.4.3 The Hague Convention on Protection of Children and Co-operation in Respect of Intercountry Adoption 1993 4.4.4 The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child 1989 4.4.5 The Hague Convention on Civil Aspects of International Child Abduction 4.4.6 The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) 4.4.7 The European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms 1950 and Rulings of the ECtHR 4.4.8 Declaration on Social and Legal Principles Relating to the Protection and Welfare of Children, with Special Reference to Foster Placement and Adoption Nationally and Internationally 1986 4.4.9 The European Convention on the Adoption of Children 1967 4.4.10 The Universal Declaration of Human Rights 1948 4.5 Conclusion 5 Intercountry Adoption and the Hague Convention 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Definitions 5.2.1 Full and Simple Adoptions 5.2.2 Intercountry Adoption 5.2.3 Overseas Adoption 5.3 Background 5.3.1 Needs 5.3.2 The Countries 5.4 The Law: Developments Leading to an International Framework 5.4.1 The Common Law 5.4.2 The Universal Declaration of Human Rights 1948 5.4.3 The European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms 1950 5.4.4 The Hague Convention on Jurisdiction, Applicable Law and Recognition of Decrees Relating to Adoption 1965 5.4.5 The European Convention on the Adoption of Children 1967 5.4.6 Declaration on Social and Legal Principles Relating to the Protection and Welfare of Children, with Special Reference to Foster Placement and Adoption Nationally and Internationally 1986 5.4.7 The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child 1989 5.4.8 The Hague Conference on Private International Law 5.5 Contemporary Intercountry Adoption: Policy and Principles 5.5.1 A Controversial Policy 5.5.2 Some Guiding Principles 5.6 Contemporary Intercountry Adoption Law 5.6.1 The Hague Convention on Protection of Children and Co-operation in Respect of Intercountry Adoption 1993 5.6.2 The Hague Convention: Administrative Bodies 5.6.3 The Hague Convention: Procedures 5.6.4 The Hague Convention: Outcomes 5.6.5 The Hague Convention Adoption Process: Legal Effects 5.6.6 The Hague Convention: Limitations 5.6.7 Brussels II 5.6.8 The Council of Europe 5.6.9 The European Convention on the Adoption of Children (Revised) 2008 5.6.10 The United Nations Guidelines for the Alternative Care of Children 2009 5.7 Contemporary Intercountry Adoption Practice 5.7.1 An Overview: The Trends 5.7.2 Sending Countries 5.7.3 Receiving Countries 5.7.4 Some Issues in Contemporary Practice 5.8 Conclusion Part IIIContemporary Law, Policy and Practice in a Common Law Context 6 England and Wales 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Background 6.2.1 The Social Context Giving Rise to Adoption 6.2.2 Resulting Trends in Types of Adoption 6.3 Overview of Principles, Policy and Law 6.3.1 Adoption Principles and Policy 6.3.2 Contemporary Adoption Related Legislation 6.3.3 International Law 6.4 Regulating the Adoption Process 6.4.1 The Process 6.4.2 Role of Adoption Agencies and Other Administrative Bodies 6.4.3 Role of the Determining Body 6.4.4 The Registrar General 6.4.5 Other 6.5 Threshold for Entering the Adoption Process: Eligibility and Suitability Criteria 6.5.1 The Child 6.5.2 The Birth Parent/s 6.5.3 The Adopters: Eligibility and Suitability Criteria 6.6 Pre-placement Counselling 6.6.1 Wishes, Welfare and Safety of the Child 6.7 Placement Rights and Responsibilities 6.7.1 Authority to Place 6.7.2 Placement Supervision 6.8 The Hearing 6.8.1 Where Consent Is Available 6.8.2 Where Consent Is Not Available 6.9 Thresholds for Exiting the Adoption Process 6.9.1 The Welfare Interests of the Child 6.9.2 Representing the Child’s Welfare Interests 6.10 The Outcome of the Adoption Process 6.10.1 Adoption Order 6.10.2 Alternative Orders 6.11 The Effect of an Adoption Order 6.11.1 The Child 6.11.2 The Birth Parent/s 6.11.3 The Adopters 6.11.4 Revocation of an Adoption Order 6.12 Post-adoption Support Services 6.12.1 Adoption Support Services 6.13 Information Disclosure, Tracing and Re-unification Services 6.13.1 Information Disclosure 6.13.2 Adoption Registers 6.13.3 Conditional Access 6.13.4 Tracing and Re-unification Services 6.14 Conclusion 7 Ireland 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Background 7.2.1 The Social Context Giving Rise to Adoption 7.2.2 Resulting Trends in Types of Adoption 7.3 Overview of Principles, Policy and Law 7.3.1 Adoption Principles and Policy 7.3.2 Contemporary Adoption Legislation and Related Statutes 7.3.3 International Law 7.4 Regulating the Adoption Process 7.4.1 Length and Breadth of the Process 7.4.2 Role of Adoption Agencies and Other Administrative Agencies 7.4.3 Role of the Determining Body 7.4.4 The Registrar General 7.5 Threshold for Entering the Adoption Process: Eligibility and Suitability Criteria 7.5.1 The Child 7.5.2 The Birth Parents 7.5.3 The Adopters: Eligibility and Suitability Criteria 7.6 Pre-placement Counselling 7.7 Placement Rights and Responsibilities 7.7.1 Authority to Place 7.7.2 Placement Supervision 7.8 The Hearing 7.8.1 Where Consent Is Available 7.8.2 Where Consent Is Not Available 7.9 Thresholds for Exiting the Adoption Process 7.9.1 The Welfare Interests of the Child 7.9.2 Representing the Child’s Welfare Interests 7.10 The Outcome of the Adoption Process 7.10.1 Adoption Order 7.10.2 Alternative Orders 7.11 The Effect of an Adoption Order 7.11.1 The Child 7.11.2 The Birth Parent/s 7.11.3 The Adopters 7.11.4 Dissolution of an Adoption Order 7.12 Post-adoption Support Services 7.12.1 Adoption Support Services 7.13 Information Disclosure, Tracing and Re-unification Services 7.13.1 Information Disclosure 7.13.2 Adoption Registers 7.13.3 Conditional Access 7.13.4 Tracing and Re-unification Services 7.14 Conclusion 8 United States of America 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Background 8.2.1 The Social Context Giving Rise to Adoption 8.2.2 Resulting Trends in Types of Adoption 8.3 Overview of Principles, Policy and Law 8.3.1 Adoption Principles and Policy 8.3.2 Contemporary Adoption Related Legislation 8.3.3 International Law 8.4 Regulating the Adoption Process 8.4.1 Length and Breadth of the Process 8.4.2 Role of Adoption Agencies and Other Administrative Bodies 8.4.3 Role of the Determining Body 8.4.4 Registrar 8.5 Thresholds for Entering the Adoption Process: Eligibility and Suitability Criteria 8.5.1 The Child 8.5.2 The Birth Parent/s 8.5.3 The Adopters: Eligibility and Suitability Criteria 8.6 Pre-placement Counselling 8.7 Placement Rights and Responsibilities 8.7.1 Authority to Place 8.7.2 Placement Supervision 8.8 The Hearing 8.8.1 Where Consent Is Available 8.8.2 Where Consent Is Not Available 8.9 Thresholds for Exiting the Adoption Process 8.9.1 The Welfare Interests of the Child 8.9.2 Representing the Child’s Welfare Interests 8.10 The Outcome of the Adoption Process 8.10.1 Adoption Order 8.10.2 Alternative Orders 8.11 The Effect of an Adoption Order 8.11.1 The Child 8.11.2 The Birth Parent/s 8.11.3 The Adopters 8.11.4 Dissolution of an Adoption Order 8.12 Post-adoption Support Services 8.12.1 Adoption Support Services 8.13 Information Disclosure, Tracing and Re-unification Services 8.13.1 Information Disclosure 8.13.2 Adoption Registers 8.13.3 Conditional Access 8.13.4 Tracing and Re-unification Services 8.14 Conclusion 9 Canada 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Background 9.2.1 The Social Context Giving Rise to Adoption 9.2.2 Resulting Trends in Types of Adoption 9.3 Overview of Principles, Policy and Law 9.3.1 Adoption Principles and Policy 9.3.2 Contemporary Adoption Related Legislation 9.3.3 International Law 9.4 Regulating the Adoption Process 9.4.1 Length and Breadth of the Process 9.4.2 Role of Adoption Agencies and Other Administrative Bodies 9.4.3 Role of the Determining Body 9.4.4 The Registrar General 9.5 Threshold for Entering the Adoption Process: Eligibility and Suitability Criteria 9.5.1 The Child 9.5.2 The Birth Parents 9.5.3 The Adopters: Eligibility and Suitability Criteria 9.6 Pre-placement Counselling 9.7 Placement Rights and Responsibilities 9.7.1 Authority to Place 9.7.2 Placement Supervision 9.8 The Hearing 9.8.1 Where Consent Is Available 9.8.2 Where Consent Is Not Available 9.9 Thresholds for Exiting the Adoption Process 9.9.1 The Welfare Interests of the Child 9.9.2 Representing the Child’s Welfare Interests 9.10 The Outcome of the Adoption Process 9.10.1 Adoption Order 9.10.2 Alternative Orders 9.11 The Effect of an Adoption Order 9.11.1 The Child 9.11.2 The Birth Parent/s 9.11.3 The Adopters 9.11.4 Dissolution of an Adoption Order 9.12 Post-adoption Support Services 9.12.1 Adoption Support Services 9.13 Information Disclosure, Tracing and Re-unification Services 9.13.1 Information Disclosure 9.13.2 Adoption Registers 9.13.3 Conditional Access 9.13.4 Tracing and Re-unification 9.14 Conclusion 10 Australia 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Background 10.2.1 The Social Context Giving Rise to Adoption 10.2.2 Resulting Trends in Types of Adoption 10.3 Overview of Adoption Law and Policy 10.3.1 Adoption Principles, Policy and Alternatives 10.3.2 Contemporary Adoption Related Legislation 10.3.3 International Law 10.4 Regulating the Adoption Process 10.4.1 Length and Breadth of Process 10.4.2 Role of Adoption Agencies and Other Administrative Bodies 10.4.3 Role of the Determining Body 10.4.4 Registrar General 10.5 Threshold for Entering the Adoption Process: Eligibility and Suitability Criteria 10.5.1 The Child 10.5.2 The Birth Parent/s 10.5.3 The Adopters: Eligibility and Suitability Criteria 10.6 Pre-placement Counselling 10.6.1 The Adoption Applications Committee 10.7 Placement Rights and Responsibilities 10.7.1 Authority to Place 10.7.2 Placement Supervision 10.8 The Hearing 10.8.1 Where Consent Is Available 10.8.2 Where Consent Is Not Available 10.9 Thresholds for Exiting the Adoption Process 10.9.1 The Welfare Interests of the Child 10.9.2 Representing the Child’s Welfare Interests 10.10 The Outcome of the Adoption Process 10.10.1 Adoption Order 10.10.2 Alternative Orders 10.11 The Effect of an Adoption Order 10.11.1 The Child 10.11.2 The Birth Parent/s 10.11.3 The Adopters 10.11.4 Dissolution of an Adoption Order 10.12 Post-adoption Support Services 10.12.1 Adoption Support Services 10.13 Information Disclosure, Tracing and Re-unification Services 10.13.1 Information Disclosure 10.13.2 Adoption Registers 10.13.3 Conditional Access 10.13.4 Tracing and Re-unification Services 10.14 Conclusion 11 New Zealand 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Background 11.2.1 The Social Context Giving Rise to Adoption 11.2.2 Resulting Trends in Types of Adoption 11.3 Overview of Principles, Policy and Law 11.3.1 Adoption Principles and Policy 11.3.2 Contemporary Adoption Related Legislation 11.3.3 Other Relevant Legislation 11.3.4 International Law 11.4 Regulating the Adoption Process 11.4.1 Length and Breadth of Process 11.4.2 Role of Adoption Agencies and Other Administrative Bodies 11.4.3 Role of the Determining Body 11.4.4 Registrar General 11.5 Threshold for Entering the Adoption Process: Eligibility and Suitability Criteria 11.5.1 The Child 11.5.2 The Birth Parent/s 11.5.3 The Adopters: Eligibility and Suitability Criteria 11.6 Pre-placement Counselling 11.7 Placement Rights and Responsibilities 11.7.1 Authority to Place 11.8 Placement Supervision 11.8.1 Removal of Child 11.9 The Hearing 11.9.1 Where Consent Is Available 11.9.2 Where Consent Is Not Available 11.10 Thresholds for Exiting the Adoption Process 11.10.1 The Welfare Interests of the Child 11.10.2 Representing the Child’s Welfare Interests 11.11 The Outcome of the Adoption Process 11.11.1 Adoption Order 11.11.2 Alternative Orders 11.12 The Effect of an Adoption Order 11.12.1 The Child 11.12.2 The Birth Parent/s 11.12.3 The Adopters 11.12.4 Dissolution of an Adoption Order 11.13 Post-adoption Support Services 11.13.1 Adoption Support Services 11.14 Information Disclosure, Tracing and Re-unification Services 11.14.1 Information Disclosure 11.14.2 Adoption Registers 11.14.3 Conditional Access 11.14.4 Tracing and Re-unification Services 11.15 Conclusion Part IVContemporary Law, Policy and Practice in a European Civil Law Context 12 Sweden 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Background 12.2.1 The Social Context Giving Rise to Adoption 12.2.2 Resulting Trends in Types of Adoption 12.3 Overview of Principles, Policy and Law 12.3.1 Adoption Principles, Policy and Alternatives 12.3.2 Adoption Alternatives: Long Term Fostering and Private Family Orders 12.3.3 Contemporary Adoption Related Legislation 12.3.4 International Law 12.4 Regulating the Adoption Process 12.4.1 Length and Breadth of the Process 12.4.2 Role of Adoption Agencies and Other Administrative Agencies 12.4.3 Role of the Determining Body 12.4.4 The Registrar General 12.5 Threshold for Entering the Adoption Process: Eligibility and Suitability Criteria 12.5.1 The Child 12.5.2 The Birth Parent/s 12.5.3 The Adopters: Eligibility and Suitability Criteria 12.6 Pre-placement Counselling 12.7 Placement Rights and Responsibilities 12.7.1 Authority to Place 12.7.2 Placement Supervision 12.8 The Hearing 12.8.1 Where Consent Is Available 12.8.2 Where Consent Is Not Available 12.9 Thresholds for Exiting the Adoption Process 12.9.1 The Welfare Interests of the Child 12.9.2 Representing the Child’s Welfare Interests 12.10 The Outcome of the Adoption Process 12.11 The Effect of an Adoption Order 12.11.1 The Child 12.11.2 The Birth Parent/s 12.11.3 The Adopters 12.11.4 Dissolution of an Adoption Order 12.12 Post-adoption Support Services 12.12.1 Adoption Support Services 12.13 Information Disclosure, Tracing and Re-unification Services 12.13.1 Information Disclosure 12.13.2 Adoption Registers 12.13.3 Conditional Access 12.13.4 Tracing and Re-unification Services 12.14 Conclusion 13 France 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Background 13.2.1 The Social Context Giving Rise to Adoption 13.2.2 Resulting Trends in Types of Adoption 13.3 Overview of Principles, Policy and Law 13.3.1 Adoption Principles and Policy 13.3.2 Contemporary Adoption Related Legislation 13.3.3 International Law 13.4 Regulating the Adoption Process 13.4.1 Length and Breadth of Process 13.4.2 Role of Adoption Agencies and Other Administrative Bodies 13.4.3 Role of the Determining Body 13.4.4 Registration 13.5 Threshold for Entering the Adoption Process: Eligibility and Suitability Criteria 13.5.1 The Child 13.5.2 The Birth Parent/s 13.5.3 The Adopters: Eligibility and Suitability Criteria 13.6 Pre-placement Counselling 13.7 Placement Rights and Responsibilities 13.7.1 Authority to Place 13.7.2 Placement Supervision 13.8 The Hearing 13.8.1 Where Consent Is Available 13.8.2 Where Consent Is Not Available 13.9 Thresholds for Exiting the Adoption Process 13.9.1 The Welfare Interests of the Child 13.9.2 Representing the Child’s Welfare Interests 13.10 The Outcome of the Adoption Process 13.10.1 Adoption Order 13.10.2 Alternative Orders 13.11 The Effect of an Adoption Order 13.11.1 The Child 13.11.2 The Birth Parent/s 13.11.3 The Adopters 13.11.4 Dissolution of an Adoption Order 13.12 Post-adoption Support Services 13.12.1 Adoption Support Services 13.13 Information Disclosure, Tracing and Re-unification Services 13.13.1 Information Disclosure 13.13.2 Registers 13.13.3 Conditional Access 13.13.4 Tracing and Re-unification Services 13.14 Conclusion 14 Germany 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Background 14.2.1 The Social Context Giving Rise to Adoption 14.2.2 Resulting Trends in Types of Adoption 14.3 Overview of Principles, Policy and Law 14.3.1 Adoption Principles and Policy 14.3.2 Contemporary Adoption Related Legislation 14.3.3 International Law 14.4 Regulating the Adoption Process 14.4.1 Length and Breadth of the Process 14.4.2 Role of Adoption Agencies and Other Administrative Bodies 14.4.3 Role of the Determining Body 14.4.4 The Registrar General 14.5 Threshold for Entering the Adoption Process: Eligibility and Suitability Criteria 14.5.1 The Child 14.5.2 The Birth Parents 14.5.3 The Adopters: Eligibility and Suitability Criteria 14.6 Pre-placement Counselling 14.7 Placement Rights and Responsibilities 14.7.1 Authority to Place 14.7.2 Placement Supervision 14.8 The Hearing 14.8.1 Where Consent Is Available 14.8.2 Where Consent Is Not Available 14.9 Thresholds for Exiting the Adoption Process 14.9.1 The Welfare Interests of the Child 14.9.2 Representing the Child’s Welfare Interests 14.10 The Outcome of the Adoption Process 14.10.1 Adoption Order 14.10.2 Alternative Orders 14.11 The Effect of an Adoption Order 14.11.1 The Child 14.11.2 The Birth Parent/s 14.11.3 The Adopters 14.11.4 Dissolution of an Adoption Order 14.12 Post-adoption Support Services 14.12.1 Adoption Support Services 14.13 Information Disclosure, Tracing and Re-unification Services 14.13.1 Information Disclosure 14.13.2 Adoption Registers 14.13.3 Conditional Access 14.13.4 Tracing and Re-unification Services 14.14 Conclusion 15 Romania 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Background 15.2.1 The Social Context Giving Rise to Adoption 15.2.2 Resulting Trends in Types of Adoption 15.3 Overview of Principles, Policy and Law 15.3.1 Adoption Principles and Policy 15.3.2 Contemporary Adoption Related Legislation 15.3.3 International Law 15.4 Regulating the Adoption Process 15.4.1 Length and Breadth of Process 15.4.2 Role of Adoption Agencies and Other Administrative Bodies 15.4.3 Role of the Determining Body 15.4.4 Registrar General 15.5 Threshold for Entering the Adoption Process: Eligibility and Suitability Criteria 15.5.1 The Child 15.5.2 The Birth Parent/s 15.5.3 The Adopters: Eligibility and Suitability Criteria 15.6 Pre-placement Counselling 15.6.1 The Adoption Committee 15.7 Placement Rights and Responsibilities 15.7.1 Authority to Place 15.7.2 Placement Supervision 15.8 The Hearing 15.8.1 Where Consent Is Available 15.8.2 Where Consent Is Not Available 15.9 Thresholds for Exiting the Adoption Process 15.9.1 The Welfare Interests of the Child 15.9.2 Representing the Child’s Welfare Interests 15.10 The Outcome of the Adoption Process 15.10.1 Adoption Order 15.10.2 Alternative Orders 15.11 The Effect of an Adoption Order 15.11.1 The Child 15.11.2 The Birth Parent/s 15.11.3 The Adopters 15.11.4 Dissolution of an Adoption Order 15.12 Post-adoption Support Services 15.12.1 Adoption Support Services 15.13 Information Disclosure, Tracing and Re-unification Services 15.13.1 Information Disclosure 15.13.2 Adoption Registers 15.13.3 Conditional Access 15.13.4 Tracing and Re-unification Services 15.14 Conclusion Part VContemporary Law, Policy and Practice in Asia 16 The Adoption Process in an Islamic Context 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Background 16.2.1 The Social Context Giving Rise to Adoption 16.2.2 Resulting Trends in Types of Adoption 16.2.3 Emerging Characteristics of the Adoption Process 16.3 Overview of Principles, Policy and Law 16.3.1 Adoption Principles and Policy 16.3.2 Contemporary Adoption Related Legislation 16.3.3 International Law 16.4 Regulating the Adoption Process 16.4.1 Length and Breadth of Process 16.4.2 Role of Adoption Agencies and Other Administrative Agencies 16.4.3 Role of the Determining Body 16.5 Threshold for Entering the Adoption Process: Eligibility and Suitability Criteria 16.5.1 The Child 16.5.2 The Birth Parent/s 16.5.3 The Adopters: Eligibility and Suitability Criteria 16.6 Pre-placement Counselling 16.7 Placement Rights and Responsibilities 16.8 The Hearing 16.8.1 Where Consent Is Available 16.8.2 Where Consent Is Not Available 16.9 Thresholds for Exiting the Adoption Process 16.9.1 The Welfare Interests of the Child 16.9.2 Representing the Child’s Welfare Interests 16.10 The Outcome of the Adoption Process 16.10.1 Adoption Order 16.10.2 Alternative Orders 16.11 The Effect of an Adoption Order 16.11.1 The Child 16.11.2 The Birth Parent/s 16.11.3 The Adopters 16.11.4 Dissolution of an Adoption Order 16.12 Post-adoption Support Services 16.13 Information Disclosure, Tracing and Re-unification Services 16.13.1 Information Disclosure 16.13.2 Tracing and Re-unification Services 16.14 Conclusion 17 South Korea 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Background 17.2.1 The Social Context Giving Rise to Adoption 17.2.2 Resulting Trends in Types of Adoption 17.3 Overview of Principles, Policy and Law 17.3.1 Adoption Principles and Policy 17.3.2 Contemporary Adoption Related Legislation 17.3.3 International Law 17.4 Regulating the Adoption Process 17.4.1 Length and Breadth of Process 17.4.2 Role of Adoption Agencies and Other Administrative Bodies 17.4.3 Role of the Determining Body 17.4.4 Registration 17.5 Threshold For Entering The Adoption Process: Eligibility and Suitability Criteria 17.5.1 The Child 17.5.2 The Birth Parent/s 17.5.3 The Adopters: Eligibility and Suitability Criteria 17.6 Pre-placement Counselling 17.6.1 The Korean Welfare Service 17.7 Placement Rights and Responsibilities 17.7.1 Authority to Place 17.7.2 Placement Supervision 17.8 The Hearing 17.8.1 Where Consent Is Available 17.8.2 Overseas Adoptions 17.8.3 Where Consent Is Not Available 17.9 Thresholds for Exiting the Adoption Process 17.9.1 The Welfare Interests of the Child 17.9.2 Representing the Child’s Welfare Interests 17.10 The Outcome of the Adoption Process 17.10.1 Adoption Order 17.10.2 Alternative Orders 17.11 The Effect of an Adoption Order 17.11.1 The Child 17.11.2 The Birth Parent/s 17.11.3 The Adopters 17.11.4 Dissolution of an Adoption Order 17.12 Post-adoption Support Services 17.12.1 Adoption Support Services 17.13 Information Disclosure, Tracing and Re-unification Services 17.13.1 Information Disclosure 17.13.2 Registers 17.13.3 Conditional Access 17.13.4 Tracing and Re-unification Services 17.14 Conclusion 18 Japan 18.1 Introduction 18.2 Background 18.2.1 The Social Context Giving Rise to Adoption 18.2.2 Resulting Trends in Types of Adoption 18.3 Overview of Principles, Policy and Law 18.3.1 Adoption Principles and Policy 18.3.2 Contemporary Adoption and Related Legislation 18.3.3 International Law 18.4 Regulating the Adoption Process 18.4.1 Length and Breadth of Process 18.4.2 Role of Adoption Agencies and Other Administrative Agencies 18.4.3 Role of the Determining Body 18.4.4 The Registrar 18.5 Threshold For Entering The Adoption Process: Eligibility and Suitability Criteria 18.5.1 The Adoptee 18.5.2 The Birth Parent/s 18.5.3 The Adopters: Eligibility and Suitability Criteria 18.6 Pre-placement Counselling 18.7 Placement Rights and Responsibilities 18.7.1 Authority to Place 18.7.2 Placement Supervision 18.8 The Hearing 18.8.1 Where Consent Is Available 18.8.2 Where Consent Is Not Available 18.8.3 Application to the Family Court 18.9 Thresholds for Exiting the Adoption Process 18.9.1 Welfare Interests 18.9.2 Representing the Child’s Welfare Interests 18.10 The Outcome of the Adoption Process 18.10.1 Adoption Orders 18.10.2 Alternative Orders 18.10.3 No Order 18.11 The Effect of an Adoption Order 18.11.1 The Child/Adoptee 18.11.2 The Birth Parent/s 18.11.3 The Adopters 18.11.4 Dissolution of an Adoption Order 18.12 Post-adoption Support Services 18.13 Information Disclosure, Tracing and Re-unification Services 18.13.1 Information Disclosure 18.13.2 Adoption Registers 18.13.3 Conditional Access 18.13.4 Tracing and Re-unification Services 18.14 Conclusion 19 China 19.1 Introduction 19.2 Background 19.2.1 The Social Context Giving Rise to Adoption 19.2.2 Resulting Trends in Types of Adoption 19.3 Overview of Principles, Policy and Law 19.3.1 Adoption Principles and Policy 19.3.2 Contemporary Adoption Related Legislation 19.3.3 International Law 19.4 Regulating the Adoption Process 19.4.1 Length and Breadth of Process 19.4.2 Role of Adoption Agencies and Other Administrative Bodies 19.4.3 Role of the Determining Body 19.4.4 The Registration Office 19.5 Threshold for Entering the Adoption Process: Eligibility and Suitability Criteria 19.5.1 The Child 19.5.2 The Birth Parent/s 19.5.3 The Adopters: Eligibility and Suitability Criteria 19.6 Pre-placement Counselling 19.7 Placement Rights and Responsibilities 19.7.1 Authority to Place 19.7.2 Placement Supervision 19.8 The Hearing 19.8.1 Where Consent Is Available 19.8.2 Where Consent Is Not Available 19.9 Thresholds for Exiting the Adoption Process 19.9.1 The Welfare Interests of the Child 19.9.2 Representing the Child’s Welfare Interests 19.10 The Outcome of the Adoption Process 19.10.1 Adoption Order 19.10.2 Alternative Orders 19.11 The Effect of an Adoption Order 19.11.1 The Child 19.11.2 The Birth Parent/s 19.11.3 The Adopters 19.11.4 Dissolution of an Adoption Order 19.12 Post-adoption Support Services 19.12.1 Adoption Support Services 19.13 Information Disclosure, Tracing and Re-unification Services 19.13.1 Information Disclosure 19.13.2 Registers 19.13.3 Conditional Access 19.13.4 Tracing and Re-unification Services 19.14 Conclusion 20 Russia 20.1 Introduction 20.2 Background 20.2.1 The Social Context Giving Rise to Adoption 20.2.2 Resulting Trends in Types of Adoption 20.3 Overview of Principles, Policy and Law 20.3.1 Adoption Principles and Policy 20.3.2 Constitutional Framework Relating to Adoption 20.3.3 Contemporary Adoption Related Domestic Law 20.3.4 Contemporary Adoption Related International Law 20.4 Regulating the Adoption Process 20.4.1 Length and Breadth of Process 20.4.2 Role of Adoption Agencies and Other Administrative Bodies 20.4.3 Role of the Determining Body 20.4.4 Civil Registry Office 20.5 Threshold for Entering the Adoption Process: Eligibility and Suitability Criteria 20.5.1 The Child 20.5.2 The Birth Parent/s 20.5.3 The Adopters: Eligibility and Suitability Criteria 20.6 Pre-placement Counselling 20.6.1 Counselling Services 20.7 Placement Rights and Responsibilities 20.7.1 Authority to Place 20.7.2 Placement Supervision 20.8 The Hearing 20.8.1 Where Consent Is Available 20.8.2 Where Consent Is Not Available 20.9 Thresholds for Exiting the Adoption Process 20.9.1 The Welfare Interests of the Child 20.9.2 Representing the Child’s Welfare Interests 20.10 The Outcome of the Adoption Process 20.10.1 Adoption Order 20.11 The Effect of an Adoption Order 20.11.1 The Child 20.11.2 The Birth Parent/s 20.11.3 The Adopters 20.11.4 Dissolution of an Adoption Order 20.12 Post-adoption Support Services 20.12.1 Adoption Support Services 20.13 Information Disclosure, Tracing and Re-unification Services 20.13.1 Information Disclosure 20.13.2 Adoption Registers 20.13.3 Tracing and Re-unification Services 20.14 Conclusion Part VIContemporary Law, Policy and Practice in an Indigenous Peoples Context 21 Indigenous Communities and Adoption 21.1 Introduction 21.2 Indigenous People and International Law 21.2.1 Need for International Protection 21.2.2 Provisions with Generic Application 21.2.3 Provisions Specific to Indigenous People 21.3 Canada: The First Nations; The Inuit 21.3.1 Background 21.3.2 Contemporary Adoption Law and the Inuit 21.4 Australia: The Indigenous or Aboriginal People 21.4.1 Background 21.4.2 Adoption as an Imposed System 21.4.3 Contemporary Adoption Law and the Aboriginal People 21.5 New Zealand: The Māori 21.5.1 Background 21.5.2 Legislative History 21.5.3 Contemporary Adoption Law and the Māori 21.6 The US: Native Americans/Indians 21.6.1 Background 21.6.2 Contemporary Adoption Law and the AI/AN 21.7 Conclusion Part VIIThe Influence of Politics 22 Politics and a Regulatory Regime for Adoption 22.1 Introduction 22.2 Adoption and a Regulatory Regime 22.2.1 A Regulatory Regime 22.2.2 The Process 22.2.3 Rights of the Parties 22.2.4 The Order Made 22.3 Adoption as a Public Social Service 22.3.1 Adoption and Family Planning 22.3.2 The Unadopted 22.3.3 Post-adoption Support and Services 22.3.4 Post-adoption Information Rights 22.4 Adoption and Human Rights: Regulating for Structural Faults 22.4.1 International Conventions 22.4.2 Human Rights and Domestic Adoption 22.4.3 Human Rights and Intercountry Adoption 22.4.4 Equality Issues and Adoption 22.5 Adoption in a Family Law Context 22.5.1 Key Family Law Principles 22.5.2 Convention Law, Family Law and Adoption: Balancing Public and Private Interests 22.6 Conclusion 23 Politics and a Contemporary Social Role for Adoption 23.1 Introduction 23.2 Politics and the Social Role of Adoption 23.2.1 Historical Perspectives 23.2.2 Adoption and Religion 23.2.3 Contemporary Perspectives 23.3 Fixing Re-configured Families: Step, Kinship and Same Sex Adoptions 23.3.1 Step-Adoption 23.3.2 Kinship Adoption 23.3.3 Same Sex Adoption 23.4 Child Care Adoption 23.4.1 State Policy for Non-consensual Adoption 23.4.2 State Policy Against Non-consensual Adoption 23.4.3 Correlation Between Children in Care and ICA 23.5 Intercountry Adoption 23.5.1 Beginnings 23.5.2 Disaster Relief Response 23.5.3 Intercountry Adoption Policy Shaped by Domestic Pressures 23.5.4 Intercountry Adoption and Surrogacy 23.5.5 International Commercial Surrogacy and Trafficking 23.6 Adoption: An Increasingly Uncertain Social Construct 23.6.1 Adoption and Cultural Context 23.6.2 The Changing Social Role of Adoption 23.6.3 Broadening the Right of Access to Adoption 23.6.4 Broadening the Outcomes of Adoption 23.6.5 Broadening the Definition of Adoption 23.7 Conclusion Conclusion Index