Netter's Cardiology

Description

Netter's Cardiology Copyright Page About the Editors Preface About the Artists Acknowledgments Contributors Online Contents Videos Printable Patient Education Brochures From Ferri’s Netter Patient Advisor, 3rd Edition 1 Basic Anatomy and Embryology of the Heart Origins of Cardiac Precursor Populations Formation of the Primitive Linear Heart Tube Looping of the Linear Heart Tube Chamber Formation Septation Formation of the Cardiac Valves Cardiac Neural Crest Epicardium and Epicardially Derived Cells Additional resources 2 The History and Physical Examination Abstract Keywords The Concept of Previous Probability The History Chest Discomfort Dyspnea, Edema, and Ascites Palpitations and Syncope The Physical Examination General Inspection and Vital Signs Important Components of the Cardiovascular Examination Cardiac Auscultation Maneuvers Future Directions Additional Resources Evidence 3 Genetics in Cardiovascular Disease Abstract Keywords Genetic Evaluation: Selected Examples Cardiomyopathies Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy Arrhythmogenic Diseases Long QT Syndrome Atherosclerosis Genetics in Pharmacology Future Directions Additional Resources Evidence 4 Effects of Exercise on Cardiovascular Health Abstract Keywords Definitions Primary Prevention Secondary Prevention Limiting Coronary Atherosclerotic Progression Physiology of Exercise Effects on Cardiovascular Health Oxygen Supply and Demand Lipids Metabolic Syndrome and Diabetes Blood Pressure Role of Exercise Training in Heart Failure Cardiac Rehabilitation Future Directions Evidence 5 Cardiovascular Epidemiology and Risk Prediction Models Abstract Keywords Prevalence of Cardiovascular Disease Epidemiology of Cardiovascular Disease Risk Factors Hypertension Hyperlipidemia or Dyslipidemia Tobacco Use Diabetes Obesity, Diet, and Physical Activity Efforts at Cardiovascular Disease Prevention Population and High-Risk Approaches to Cardiovascular Disease Risk Reduction Introduction to Risk Estimation Defining Risk Risk Score Generation Evaluation of Risk Score Performance Discrimination Calibration Risk Reclassification Innovations and Future Directions of Cardiovascular Disease Epidemiology Additional Resources High Risk Versus Population Approach American Heart Association Risk Assessment Guidelines American Heart Association Cholesterol Lowering Guidelines American Heart Association Yearly Statistics Update Evidence Blood Pressure and Cardiovascular Mortality Cholesterol and Cardiovascular Events Ideal Cardiovascular Health Validation of 2013 Risk Assessment Estimation Equation Coronary Artery Calcium and Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Disease Risk Prediction 6 Stem Cell Therapies for Cardiovascular Disease Abstract Keywords Stem Cells Types of Stem Cells and Mechanisms of Benefit Approaches to Stem Cell Administration, Technical Challenges, and Safety Concerns Clinical Evidence of Stem Cell Therapy Future Directions of Stem Cell Therapy Summary Additional Resources Evidence 7 Electrocardiography Leads Electrocardiographic Waveform P Wave PR Interval QRS Complex ST Segment and T Wave U Wave QT Abnormalities Acute Ischemia and Infarction Arrhythmias Screening Future Directions Additional Resources Part I Part II Part III Part IV Part V Part VI Consensus Statements on the Use of the ECG to Screen Various Populations for Potentially Lethal Cardiac Diseases Evidence 8 Chest Radiography Abstract Keywords Technical Aspects Normal Anatomy Clinical Usefulness Limitations Additional Resources 9 Echocardiography Keywords Imaging Methods and Clinical Applications Transthoracic Echocardiography Transesophageal Echocardiography Stress Echocardiography Contrast Echocardiography Strain Imaging Intravascular Ultrasound and Intracardiac Echocardiography Three-Dimensional Echocardiography Interventional Echocardiography Limitations Future Directions Additional Resources Evidence 10 Stress Testing and Nuclear Imaging Exercise Stress Testing Cardiac Stress Imaging Myocardial Perfusion Imaging Stress With Myocardial Perfusion Imaging Radiotracers Image Interpretation Advances and Integration of Cardiac Imaging Other Uses of Cardiac Nuclear Medicine Equilibrium Radionuclide Ventriculography (Multiple-Gated Acquisition Scan) Viability Future Directions in Clinical Cardiac Molecular Imaging Ventricular Dyssynchrony Assessment Ischemic Memory Cardiac Neurotransmission Imaging Sarcoidosis and Other Inflammatory Pathology Cardiac Amyloidosis Appropriate Use Criteria Additional Resources Evidence 11 Cardiac Computed Tomography and Magnetic Resonance Imaging Abstract Keywords Cardiac Computed Tomography Technology of Cardiac Computed Tomography Data Acquisition Techniques Clinical Indications Coronary Artery Calcium Score Coronary Artery Imaging (Cardiac CT Angiography) Structural Heart Evaluation Congenital Heart Disease Evaluation of Intracardiac and Extracardiac Structures Evaluation of Thoracic Aorta and Pulmonary Artery Disease Cardiac CT Limitations Future Directions Cardiac Magnetic Resonance Imaging Technology of Cardiac Magnetic Resonance Data Acquisition Sequences and Techniques Clinical Indications Ventricular Function Aortic Disease Ischemic Heart Disease Cardiomyopathies Pericardial Diseases Valvular Heart Disease Cardiac Masses Congenital Heart Disease Coronary Artery Bypass Graft Imaging Safety, Risks, and Contraindications Future Directions Additional Resources Evidence 12 Diagnostic Coronary Angiography Abstract Keywords Coronary Anatomy Coronary Artery Anomalies Preprocedural Evaluation Indications Contraindications Procedural Technique Arterial Access Coronary Artery Cannulation Angiographic Views Angiographic Analysis Limitations Complications Future Directions Additional Resources Evidence 13 Left and Right Heart Catheterization Abstract Keywords Right Heart Catheterization Indications Contraindications Procedural Technique and Data Interpretation Complications Left Heart Catheterization Procedural Technique and Data Interpretation Future Directions Additional Resources Evidence 14 Angiogenesis and Atherosclerosis Abstract Keywords Mechanisms of Angiogenesis Angiogenesis and Atherosclerosis Angiogenesis and Ischemic Heart Disease Vasculogenesis and Arteriogenesis: Alternatives to Angiogenesis Future Directions Additional Resources Evidence 15 Hypertension Abstract Keywords Etiology and Pathogenesis Clinical Presentation Differential Diagnosis Diagnostic Approach Management and Therapy Future Directions Additional Resources Evidence 16 Management of Lipid Abnormalities Abstract Assessment Management and Therapy Therapeutic Lifestyle Drug Therapy Practical Considerations Future Directions Evidence 17 Diabetes and Cardiovascular Events Abstract Keywords Etiology and Pathogenesis Epidemiology Clinical Presentation Management and Therapy Sodium/Glucose Cotransport-2 Inhibitors Glucagon-Like Peptide–1 Agonists Hypertension Control Lipid-Lowering Therapy Antiplatelet Medications Future Directions Additional Resources 18 Cardiovascular Effects of Air Pollutants Abstract Keywords History Particulate Matter Sulfur Dioxide Nitrogen Dioxide Carbon Monoxide Ozone Air Pollution Effects on Congenital Heart Disease What Patients Can Do to Protect Against Cardiovascular Effects of Air Pollution Future Directions Additional Resources Evidence 19 Stable Coronary Artery Disease Abstract Keywords Etiology and Pathogenesis Clinical Presentation Differential Diagnosis Diagnostic Approach Management and Therapy Optimum Treatment Antiplatelet Therapy Beta-Blockade Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme Inhibitors Nitrates Ranolazine Treatment of Hyperlipidemia Indications for Revascularization Future Directions Evidence 20 Non–ST-Elevation Acute Coronary Syndrome Abstract Keywords Definition and Epidemiology Pathophysiology Clinical Presentation and Differential Diagnosis Diagnostic Approach History and Physical Electrocardiogram Biomarkers of Myocardial Damage Management and Therapy Risk Stratification Selection of Overall Management Strategy Immediate Invasive Strategy Early Invasive Strategy Delayed Invasive Strategy Ischemia-Guided Strategy Antiplatelet and Anticoagulation Therapy Dual Antiplatelet Therapy Aspirin. P2Y12 receptor inhibitors. Clopidogrel. Prasugrel. Ticagrelor. Intravenous Glycoprotein IIb/IIIa Receptor Inhibitors Anticoagulation Unfractionated heparin. Low-molecular-weight heparin. Bivalirudin. Fondaparinux. Antiischemic Therapy Nitrates Beta-Adrenergic Blockers Non-Dihydropyridine Calcium Channel Blockers Future Directions Additional Resources 21 ST-Elevation Myocardial Infarction Abstract Keywords Etiology and Pathogenesis Clinical Presentation Differential Diagnosis Diagnostic Approach Electrocardiographic Findings Serum Cardiac Markers Other Imaging Management and Therapy Optimum Treatment Adjunctive Therapy Hemodynamic Disturbances and Arrhythmias Medical Therapy to Improve Outcomes Secondary Prevention Future Directions Additional Resources Evidence 22 Percutaneous Coronary Intervention Abstract Keywords Performance of Percutaneous Coronary Intervention Procedure and Equipment Adjunctive Pharmacological Therapy Outcomes With Percutaneous Coronary Intervention Procedural Complications Adjunctive Devices High-Speed Rotational Atherectomy Orbital Atherectomy Devices to Protect Against Distal Embolization Devices to Remove Thrombus Intravascular Ultrasound and Optical Coherence Tomography Cutting Balloon Fractional Flow Reserve Indications Patient Selection Coronary Lesion Selection Future Directions Additional Resources 23 Coronary Artery Bypass Surgery Abstract Keywords Etiology and Pathogenesis Differential Diagnosis Diagnostic Approach Management and Therapy Optimum Treatment Avoiding Treatment Errors Future Directions Additional Resources Evidence 24 Cardiogenic Shock After Myocardial Infarction Etiology Differential Diagnosis Pathogenesis Predominant Left Ventricular Failure Right Ventricular Failure Mitral Regurgitation Ventricular Septal Rupture Free-Wall Rupture Clinical Presentation and Diagnostic Approach Management and Therapy Optimum Treatment Avoiding Treatment Errors Future Directions Additional Resources Evidence 25 Congenital Coronary Anomalies Abstract Keywords Anomalous Connection of the Left Coronary Artery From the Pulmonary Artery Anomalous Aortic Connection of Coronaries Coronary Artery Fistulas Coronary Artery Anomalies Associated With Congenital Heart Disease Future Directions Additional Resources Evidence 26 Coronary Hemodynamics and Fractional Flow Reserve Abstract Basic Principles of Coronary Blood Flow Coronary Flow Reserve Fractional Flow Reserve Key Clinical Studies of Fractional Flow Reserve Instantaneous Wave-Free Ratio Computed Tomography–Fractional Flow Reserve Limitations of Fractional Flow Reserve and Instantaneous Wave-Free Ratio Evidence 27 Epidemiology of Heart Failure Abstract Keywords Definitions Causes of Heart Failure Prevalence Incidence Mortality Risk Factors Hospitalizations and Costs Global Burden Prevention Future Directions Additional Resources Evidence 28 Management of Acute Heart Failure Abstract Keywords Definitions and Epidemiology Etiology and Pathogenesis Clinical Presentation Diagnostic Approach Management Triage Warm and Wet Patients With Hypertension Warm and Wet Patients With Normotension Cold Patients, Dry or Wet Discharge Planning Additional Resources Evidence 29 Management of Chronic Heart Failure Abstract Keywords Etiology and Pathogenesis Heart Failure With Reduced Ejection Fraction Heart Failure With Preserved Ejection Fraction Clinical Presentation Differential Diagnosis Diagnostic Approach Management and Therapy Pharmacological Treatment for Heart Failure With Reduced Ejection Fraction Drugs That Reduce Mortality Additional Therapies Pharmacological Therapy of Heart Failure With Preserved Ejection Fraction Device Therapy for Heart Failure Implantable Cardioverter-Defibrillators and Cardiac Resynchronization Therapy Fluid Monitoring Devices Treatment of Co-morbid Disease Nonpharmacological Strategies Advanced Directives and Palliative Care Advanced Therapies Avoiding Treatment Errors Future Directions Additional Resources Evidence 30 Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy Abstract Keywords Etiology and Pathogenesis Clinical Presentation Differential Diagnosis Diagnostic Approach History and Physical Examination Electrocardiogram Echocardiography Cardiac Magnetic Resonance Imaging Genetic Testing Cardiac Catheterization Management and Therapy Symptom Relief Prevention of Sudden Cardiac Death Future Directions Additional Resources Evidence 31 Restrictive Cardiomyopathy Abstract Keywords Etiology and Pathophysiology Noninfiltrative Causes Infiltrative Causes Endomyocardial Causes Other Causes of Restrictive Cardiomyopathy Clinical Presentation Differential Diagnosis Normal Hemodynamics Constrictive Pericarditis Physiology Restrictive Cardiomyopathy Physiology Diagnostic Approach Electrocardiography Laboratory Testing Chest X-Ray Echocardiography Echocardiography and/or Doppler Flow Velocity Patterns Normal Doppler flow velocity patterns. Doppler flow pattern in restrictive cardiomyopathy. Cardiac Nuclear Imaging Computed Tomography and Magnetic Resonance Imaging Cardiac Catheterization and Endomyocardial Biopsy Management and Therapy Optimum Treatment Diastolic Heart Failure Specific Therapy Avoiding Treatment Errors Future Directions Additional Resources Evidence 32 Hereditary Cardiomyopathies Abstract Keywords Etiology and Pathogenesis Dilated Cardiomyopathy Abnormalities of Force Production Abnormalities of Force Transduction Nuclear Proteins Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy Restrictive Cardiomyopathy Arrhythmogenic Right Ventricular Cardiomyopathy Other Diagnostic Approach Genetic Testing Screening of Family Members Management and Therapy Future Directions Additional Resources Evidence 33 Myocarditis Abstract Etiology and Pathogenesis Clinical Presentation Differential Diagnosis Diagnostic Approach Management and Therapy Optimal Treatment Nonpharmacological Therapy Pharmacological Therapy Immunosuppressive Therapy Avoiding Treatment Errors Future Directions Additional Resources Evidence 34 Cardiac Transplantation and Mechanical Circulatory Support Devices Abstract Keywords Indications Donors Donor–Recipient Matching Donor Procedure Recipient Procedure Biatrial Technique Bicaval Technique Postoperative Management Results of Cardiac Transplantation Mechanical Circulatory Support Devices Patient Selection and Indications Long-Term Durable Mechanical Circulatory Support Devices AbioCor Total Artificial Heart SynCardia Total Artificial Heart Thoratec Paracorporeal Ventricular Assist Devices HeartMate XVE HeartMate II HeartMate III HeartWare Results From the Interagency Registry for Mechanically Assisted Circulatory Support Future Directions Additional Resources Evidence 35 Stress-Induced Cardiomyopathy Abstract Keywords Etiology and Pathogenesis Clinical Presentation Differential Diagnosis Diagnostic Approach Electrocardiography Cardiac Biomarkers Cardiac Catheterization Transthoracic Echocardiography Cardiac Magnetic Resonance Imaging Management and Therapy Optimal Treatment Avoiding Treatment Errors Future Directions Additional Resources Evidence 36 Bradyarrhythmias Abstract Keywords Etiology and Pathogenesis Sinus Node Dysfunction Inappropriate Sinus Bradycardia Sinus Arrest Sinoatrial Exit Block Tachy-Brady Syndrome Atrioventricular Block First-Degree Atrioventricular Block Second-Degree Atrioventricular Block Complete or Third-Degree Atrioventricular Block Concealed His Extrasystoles Chronic Multifascicular Blocks Atrioventricular Block After Myocardial Infarction Hypersensitive Carotid Sinus Syndrome Diagnostic Approach Management and Therapy Optimum Treatment Avoiding Treatment Errors Future Directions Additional Resources Evidence 37 Supraventricular Tachycardia Abstract Keywords Etiology and Pathogenesis History Examination Diagnostic Tools Electrocardiography Differential Diagnosis Atrial Tachycardias Focal Atrial Tachycardia Electrocardiographic Recognition Chaotic Atrial Tachycardia Atrioventricular Node Reentry Tachycardia Electrocardiographic Recognition Accessory Pathway–Mediated Tachycardia Electrocardiographic Recognition Atypical Pathways Mahaim fibers. Persistent junctional reciprocating tachycardia. Management Acute Management Pacing Long-Term Treatment Catheter Ablation Catheter Ablation for Specific Tachycardias Atrial tachycardia ablation. Atrioventricular nodal reentrant tachycardia ablations. Atrioventricular reentrant tachycardia ablations. Avoiding Treatment Errors Future Directions Additional Resources Evidence 38 Atrial Fibrillation Abstract Keywords Definition and Classification Mechanism and Pathophysiology Clinical Presentation Evaluation Management Rate Control Rhythm Control Lifestyle Modifications Avoiding Treatment Errors Future Directions Additional Resources Evidence 39 Atrial Fibrillation Abstract Keywords Etiology and Pathogenesis Stroke Risk Stratification HAS-BLED: Bleeding Risk Stratification Oral Anticoagulation With Warfarin for Stroke Prevention Novel Oral Anticoagulants for Stroke Prevention Inpatient Anticoagulation for Stroke Prevention Antiplatelet Agents for Stroke Prevention Bridging Therapy in Patients Requiring Cessation of Oral Anticoagulation Procedures for Stroke Prevention: Targeting the Left Atrial Appendage Surgical Left Atrial Appendage Occlusion Pericardial Approach for Left Atrial Appendage Occlusion Watchman Device for Left Atrial Appendage Occlusion Atrial Fibrillation Ablation for Stroke Prevention Future Directions Additional Resources Evidence 40 Invasive Management of Atrial Fibrillation and Atrial Tachycardias Abstract Keywords Maze Procedure Radiofrequency Catheter Ablation Cryoballoon Ablation Success and Complications of Atrial Fibrillation Ablation Catheter Ablation of Atrial Tachycardias Catheter Ablation of Typical Atrial Flutter Catheter Ablation of Atypical Atrial Flutter Focal Atrial Tachycardia Ablation Atrioventricular Node Ablation Future Directions Additional Resources Evidence 41 Ventricular Arrhythmias Abstract Keywords Etiology and Pathogenesis Differential and ECG Diagnosis QRS Morphology Independent P-Wave Activity Additional Criteria Clinical Presentation Diagnostic Approach Evaluation of the Patient With Ventricular Arrhythmias Premature Ventricular Contractions Ventricular Tachycardia Ventricular Tachycardia Syndromes Monomorphic Ventricular Tachycardia Monomorphic Ventricular Tachycardia in the Structurally Normal Heart Right Ventricular Outflow Tract Tachycardia Fascicular Tachycardia Monomorphic Ventricular Tachycardia in Structural Heart Disease Ischemic Heart Disease Dilated Nonischemic Cardiomyopathy Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy Sarcoidosis Arrhythmogenic Right Ventricular Cardiomyopathy Polymorphic Ventricular Tachycardia Structural Heart Disease Channelopathies Brugada Syndrome Long QT Syndrome Catecholaminergic Polymorphic Ventricular Tachycardia Reversible Factors Acute Management and Therapy Optimum Treatment Avoiding Treatment Errors Long-Term Management and Therapy Optimum Treatment Future Directions Additional Resources Evidence 42 Sudden Cardiac Death Abstract Keywords Epidemiology Etiology and Risk Factors Differential Diagnosis Ischemic Heart Disease Nonischemic Cardiomyopathy Idiopathic-Dilated Cardiomyopathy Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy Arrhythmogenic Right Ventricular Dysplasia and Cardiomyopathy Other Congenital Anomalies Sudden Cardiac Death in the Absence of Structural Heart Disease or Congenital Heart Disease Primary Electrophysiology Disorders Long QT Syndrome Brugada Syndrome Other Electrical Disorders Commotio Cordis Sudden Cardiac Death in Young Athletes Diagnostic Approach Risk Factors for Sudden Cardiac Death Without a History of Heart Disease Summary of Implantable Cardioverter-Defibrillator Trials Primary Prevention Secondary Prevention Management and Therapy Optimum Treatment Avoiding Treatment Errors Future Directions Additional Resources Evidence 43 Syncope Abstract Keywords Etiology and Pathogenesis Orthostatic Hypotension Cardiac Anatomic Abnormalities Cardiac Arrhythmias Neurally-Mediated Syncope Clinical Presentation Differential Diagnosis Diagnostic Approach Electrocardiogram Blood and Urine Tests Echocardiography Exercise Stress Test ECG Monitors Head-Up Tilt Table Test Intracardiac Electrophysiology Study Optimum Evaluation Management and Therapy Optimum Treatment Nonpharmacological Treatment for Neurally-Mediated Syncope Pharmacological Treatment for Neurally-Mediated Syncope Special Patient Populations Pediatric Patients Older Adult Patients Future Directions Additional Resources Evidence 51bLcjPDhpL._SX389_BO1,204,203,200_ 44 Cardiac Pacemakers and Defibrillators Abstract Keywords Indications for Implantation of Cardiac Rhythm Devices Pacemakers Biventricular Pacemakers Implantable Cardioverter-Defibrillators Pacemaker Technology Defibrillator Technology Device Implantation Postprocedure Care and Long-Term Follow-Up Electromagnetic Interference “Leadless” Technology Future Directions Evidence 45 Aortic Valve Disease Abstract Keywords Aortic Stenosis Etiology and Pathogenesis Clinical Presentation Physical Examination Differential Diagnosis Diagnostic Approach Other Diagnostic Modalities Management and Therapy Optimum Treatment Aortic Valve Replacement Future Directions Aortic Regurgitation Etiology and Pathogenesis Aortic Valve and/or Leaflet Pathology Aortic Root Diseases Natural History Clinical Presentation Physical Examination Acute Aortic Regurgitation Chronic Aortic Regurgitation Differential Diagnosis Diagnostic Approach Management and Therapy Acute Aortic Regurgitation Chronic Aortic Regurgitation Medical therapy. Surgical therapy. Future Directions Additional Resources Evidence 46 Mitral Valve Disease Abstract Keywords Etiology and Pathogenesis Mitral Stenosis Mitral Regurgitation Clinical Presentation Mitral Stenosis Mitral Regurgitation Differential Diagnosis Diagnostic Approach Management and Therapy Mitral Stenosis Optimum Treatment Avoiding Treatment Errors Mitral Regurgitation Optimum Treatment Avoiding Treatment Errors Future Directions Additional Resources Evidence 47 Cardiovascular Manifestations of Rheumatic Fever Abstract Keywords Etiology and Pathogenesis Clinical Presentation of Acute Rheumatic Fever Differential Diagnosis for Acute Rheumatic Fever Diagnostic Approach to Acute Rheumatic Fever History and Laboratory Evaluation Echocardiography Electrocardiogram Jones Criteria for Diagnosis of Rheumatic Fever Revised Jones Criteria for Diagnosis of Acute Rheumatic Fever Management and Therapy Acute Rheumatic Fever and Rheumatic Carditis and/or Valvulitis Primary and Secondary Prevention Clinical Presentation of Rheumatic Heart Disease Mitral Valve Disease in Rheumatic Heart Disease Aortic and Mixed Valve Disease in Rheumatic Heart Disease Tricuspid Valve Disease Complications of Rheumatic Heart Disease Stroke Atrial Fibrillation Differential Diagnosis of Rheumatic Heart Disease Diagnostic Approach in Chronic Rheumatic Heart Disease History and Laboratory Evaluation Electrocardiogram Echocardiography Cardiac Catheterization Management of Chronic Rheumatic Heart Disease Future Directions Additional Resources Evidence 48 Tricuspid and Pulmonic Valve Disease Abstract Keywords Tricuspid Stenosis Etiology, Pathogenesis, and Differential Diagnosis Clinical Presentation Diagnostic Approach Management and Therapy Tricuspid Regurgitation Etiology and Pathogenesis Clinical Presentation Diagnostic Approach Management and Therapy Pulmonic Stenosis Etiology and Pathogenesis Clinical Presentation Diagnostic Approach Management and Therapy Pulmonic Regurgitation Etiology and Pathogenesis Clinical Presentation Diagnostic Approach Management and Therapy Future Directions Additional Resources Evidence 49 Infective Endocarditis Etiology and Pathogenesis Risk Factors Clinical Presentation Diagnostic Approach Microbiology Specific Pathogens Staphylococcal Endocarditis Streptococcal Endocarditis Enterococcal Endocarditis Gram-negative endocarditis. HACEK Endocarditis Fungal Endocarditis Culture-Negative Endocarditis Prosthetic Valve Endocarditis Mycobacterium chimaera Endocarditis Echocardiography Management and Therapy Optimum Treatment Antimicrobial Therapy Indications for Surgical Intervention Avoiding Treatment Errors Prophylaxis Future Directions Additional Resources Evidence 50 Surgical Treatment of Valvular Heart Disease Abstract Keywords First-Generation Prosthetic Valves Second-Generation Prosthetic Valves Etiology and Pathogenesis Clinical Presentation Differential Diagnosis Diagnostic Approach Management and Therapy Optimum Treatment Surgical Therapy Mitral and Tricuspid Valves Aortic Valves Avoiding Treatment Errors Issues With Prosthetic Valve Replacement Minimally Invasive Techniques Future Directions Additional Resources Evidence 51 Clinical Presentation of Adults With Congenital Heart Disease Abstract Keywords Etiology and Pathogenesis Uncorrected Cyanotic Heart Conditions Eisenmenger Syndrome Uncorrected Acyanotic Conditions Atrial Septal Defect Ventricular Septal Defect Patent Ductus Arteriosus Surgically Corrected Conditions Likely to Present to the Adult Cardiology Clinic Tetralogy of Fallot D-Transposition of the Great Arteries Tricuspid Atresia/Hypoplastic Right Heart Total Anomalous Pulmonary Venous Connection Uncorrected Conditions Likely to Present in the Adult Cardiology Clinic Levo-Transposition of the Great Arteries Coarctation of the Aorta Bicuspid Aortic Valve Dextrocardia Ebstein Anomaly Diagnostic Testing in Adults With Congenital Heart Disease Electrocardiography and Ambulatory Monitoring Echocardiography Advanced Cardiac Imaging Techniques Cardiopulmonary Exercise Testing Cardiac Catheterization Heart Transplantation for Adults With Congenital Heart Disease Future Directions Additional Resources 52 Catheter-Based Therapies for Adult Congenital Heart Disease Abstract Keywords Balloon Atrial Septostomy Catheter Interventions for Congenital Valvular Disease Balloon Valvuloplasty Transcatheter Pulmonary Valve Implantation Catheter Interventions for Vascular Stenoses Pulmonary Artery Stenosis Coarctation of the Aorta Transcatheter Closure of Congenital Shunts Persistent Ductus Arteriosus Atrial Septal Defect Patent Foramen Ovale Ventricular Septal Defect Future Directions Additional Resources Evidence 53 Surgical Interventions for Congenital Heart Disease Abstract Keywords Surgical Treatment Palliative Surgical Procedures Special Considerations for Specific Single-Ventricle Lesions Surgically Correctable Lesions Patent Ductus Arteriosus Ventricular Septal Defects Atrial Septal Defects Atrioventricular Septal Defects Tetralogy of Fallot Total Anomalous Pulmonary Venous Return Transposition of the Great Arteries Truncus Arteriosus Avoiding Treatment Errors Future Directions Additional Resources Evidence 54 Transcatheter Aortic Valve Replacement Abstract Keywords Pathophysiology Diagnosis and Treatment Transcatheter Aortic Valve Replacement Indications Route of Access Evidence for Current Indications Complications Future of Transcatheter Aortic Valve Replacement Additional Resources Evidence 55 Transcatheter Mitral Valve Repair Abstract Keywords Mitraclip Technique Evidence Real-World Experience Other Techniques for Transcatheter Mitral Valve Repair Carillon Mitral Contour System Mitralign System Transcatheter Mitral Valve Replacement Additional Resources Evidence 56 Pericardial Disease Abstract Acute Pericarditis Etiology and Pathogenesis Clinical Presentation Differential Diagnosis Diagnostic Approach Management and Therapy Optimum Treatment Avoiding Treatment Errors Chronic or Recurrent Pericarditis Constrictive Pericarditis Etiology and Pathogenesis Clinical Presentation History Physical Examination Differential Diagnosis Diagnostic Approach Management and Therapy Optimum Treatment Avoiding Treatment Errors Pericardial Effusion Etiology and Pathogenesis Clinical Presentation History and Physical Examination Differential Diagnosis Diagnostic Approach Electrocardiography Chest Radiography Echocardiography Computed Tomography and Magnetic Resonance Imaging Management and Therapy Optimum Treatment Avoiding Treatment Errors Future Directions Additional Resources Evidence 57 Pericardial Disease Abstract Keywords Normal Pericardial Pathology and Physiology Hemodynamics of Pericardial Constriction and Pericardial Tamponade Pericardial Constriction Hemodynamics of Pericardial Constriction Clinical Examination, Chest X-Ray, and Electrocardiography Echo-Doppler Measurements Computed Tomography Gated-Cardiac Magnetic Resonance Imaging Cardiac Catheterization Pericardial Tamponade Hemodynamics of Tamponade Clinical Examination, Chest X-Ray, and Electrocardiography Echo-Doppler Measurements Computed Tomography Cardiac Magnetic Resonance Imaging Cardiac Catheterization Summary of Comparisons Between Constrictive Pericarditis and Cardiac Tamponade Future Directions Additional Resources Evidence 58 Renal Artery Stenosis and Renal Denervation Abstract Keywords Etiology and Pathogenesis Natural History Clinical Presentation Differential Diagnosis Diagnostic Approach Management and Therapy Optimum Treatment Renal Artery Revascularization Indications for Revascularization in Atherosclerotic Renal Artery Stenosis Hypertension Renal Preservation Pulmonary Edema Avoiding Treatment Errors Renal Denervation Future Directions Additional Resources Evidence 59 Interventional Approaches for Peripheral Arterial Disease Abstract Keywords Upper Extremity Disease Diseases of the Visceral Arteries Lower Extremity Disease Future Directions Additional Resources Evidence 60 Surgery for Peripheral Vascular Diseases Abstract Keywords Etiology and Pathogenesis Lower Extremity Atherosclerosis Clinical Presentation Management and Therapy Optimum Treatment Avoiding Treatment Errors Carotid Disease Clinical Presentation Management and Therapy Optimum Treatment Avoiding Treatment Errors Visceral Disease Clinical Presentation Management and Therapy Optimum Treatment Avoiding Treatment Errors Future Directions Additional Resources Evidence 61 Carotid Artery Revascularization Abstract Keywords Epidemiology Pathogenesis of Stroke Clinical Manifestations of Stroke Diagnostic Evaluation Treatment of Carotid Artery Occlusive Disease Symptomatic Asymptomatic Treatment Complications Conclusions Additional Reading 62 Diseases of the Aorta Abstract Keywords Aneurysmal Disease Etiology and Pathogenesis Clinical Presentation Management and Therapy Optimum Treatment Avoiding Treatment Errors Thoracic Aneurysms Clinical Presentation Management and Therapy Optimum Treatment Avoiding Treatment Errors Thoracoabdominal Aortic Aneurysms Aortic Dissection Conclusions Additional Reading 63 Deep Vein Thrombosis and Pulmonary Embolism Abstract Keywords Etiology and Pathogenesis Clinical Presentation Deep Vein Thrombosis Pulmonary Embolism Differential Diagnosis Deep Vein Thrombosis Pulmonary Embolism Diagnostic Approach Laboratory Evaluation Electrocardiography Echocardiography Imaging Strategy for Diagnostic Evaluation Management and Therapy Early Risk Stratification Systemic Anticoagulation Systemic Thrombolysis Surgical Embolectomy Catheter-Based Intervention Future Directions Additional Resources Evidence 64 Cardiovascular Disease in Pregnancy Abstract Keywords Physiological Adaptations to Pregnancy Changes During Pregnancy Changes During Labor and Delivery Changes in the Postpartum Period Clinical Presentation Cardiac Examination During Normal Pregnancy Differential Diagnosis Diagnostic Approach Preexisting Disease States and Pregnancy Congenital Heart Disease Pulmonary Vascular Disease and Eisenmenger Syndrome Marfan Syndrome Valvular Heart Disease Heart Failure Cardiovascular Disease Unique to Pregnancy Hypertension in Pregnancy Peripartum Cardiomyopathy Pulmonary Edema Induced by Tocolytic Therapy Acute Myocardial Infarction Optimum Treatment Avoiding Treatment Errors Future Directions Additional Resources Evidence 65 Neuromuscular Diseases and the Heart Abstract Keywords Myopathies Muscular Dystrophies Dystrophinopathies: Duchenne and Becker. Emery-Dreifuss Muscular Dystrophy. Myotonic Dystrophy. Limb Girdle Muscular Dystrophy. Distal Myopathies. Myofibrillar Myopathies. Facioscapulohumeral Muscular Dystrophy. Congenital Myopathies Metabolic Myopathies Disorders of Glycogen Metabolism. Disorders of Lipid Metabolism and Carnitine Deficiency. Mitochondrial Disorders. Periodic Paralysis Syndromes Acquired Myopathies Inflammatory Myopathies. Peripheral Neuropathy Diabetic Neuropathy Immune-Mediated Neuropathies Guillain-Barré syndrome. Chronic Immune-Mediated Autonomic Neuropathy. Amyoloidosis Hereditary Neuropathies Additional Resources Evidence 66 Cardiovascular Manifestations of Endocrine Diseases Abstract Pituitary Gland Disorders Hypopituitarism Acromegaly Disorders of Antidiuretic Hormone Secretion Syndrome of Inappropriate Antidiuretic Hormone Secretion Thyroid Disorders Hyperthyroidism Hypothyroidism Parathyroid Disorders Adrenal Disorders Cushing Disease and Syndrome Addison Disease Mineralocorticoid Disorders Adrenal Medullary Tumors Diabetes Cardiomyopathy Future Directions Evidence 67 Connective Tissue Diseases and the Heart Abstract Keywords Etiology and Pathogenesis Clinical Presentation Systemic Lupus Erythematosus Rheumatoid Arthritis Idiopathic Inflammatory Myopathies Mixed Connective Tissue Disease Systemic Sclerosis Seronegative Spondyloarthropathies Vasculitis Diagnostic Approach Management and Therapy Additional Resources Evidence 68 Cardiac Tumors and Cardio-Oncology Abstract Keywords Cardiac Tumors Clinical Presentation Differential Diagnosis Primary Benign Cardiac Tumors Myxoma Lipoma Rhabdomyoma Fibroma Papillary Fibroelastoma Primary Malignant Cardiac Tumors Sarcoma Lymphoma Pericardial Mesothelioma Secondary Malignant Cardiac Tumors Diagnostic Approach Management and Therapy The Field of Cardio-Oncology Anthracyclines Etiology and Pathogenesis Management and Therapy Human Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor-2 Targeted Agents Etiology and Pathogenesis Management and Therapy Kinase Inhibitors and Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor Inhibitors Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors Radiation Therapy Future Directions Additional Resources Evidence 69 Pulmonary Hypertension Abstract Keywords Etiology and Pathogenesis World Health Organization Group 1: Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension World Health Organization Group 2: Pulmonary Hypertension Due to Left Heart Disease World Health Organization Group 3: Pulmonary Hypertension Due to Lung Diseases and/or Hypoxia World Health Organization Group 4: Pulmonary Hypertension Due to Chronic Thromboembolic Disease World Health Organization Group 5: Pulmonary Hypertension Due to Unclear or Multifactorial Mechanisms Clinical Presentation Differential Diagnosis Diagnostic Approach Management and Therapy General Measures in the Treatment of Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension Supplemental Oxygen Therapy Assessment for and Correction of Hypoventilation and/or Sleep-Disordered Breathing Diuretic Therapy Anticoagulation Immunizations Against Respiratory Infections Avoidance of Valsalva Maneuvers A Center-Based Treatment Approach Calcium Channel Blocker Therapy Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension– Specific Therapies Parenteral Prostacyclins Endothelin-Receptor Antagonists Phosphodiesterase-5 Inhibitors and Soluble Guanylate Cyclase Stimulators Inhaled Prostacyclins Oral Prostacyclins and Prostacyclin Receptor Agonists Combination Therapy Treatment of Chronic Thromboembolic Pulmonary Hypertension Treatment Goals in Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension Atrial Septostomy Lung Transplantation Future Directions Additional Resources Evidence 70 HIV and the Heart Abstract Keywords Etiology and Pathogenesis Clinical Presentation Dilated Cardiomyopathy Pulmonary Hypertension Pericardial Effusions and Pericarditis Infective Endocarditis Cardiac Neoplasms Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Disease Impact of Immunosuppression HIV-Related Inflammation Antiretroviral Medications Traditional Modifiable Risk Factors Dyslipidemia Insulin Resistance Management of Cardiovascular Disease Risk in HIV-Infected Patients Avoiding Drug Interactions Future Directions Additional Resources Evidence 71 Sleep Disorders and the Cardiovascular System Abstract Keywords Normal Sleep Physiology Sleep Length and Health Sleep-Related Breathing Disorders Obstructive Sleep Apnea Obstructive Sleep Apnea Link to Hypertension Obstructive Sleep Apnea and Cardiac Disease Treatment of Heart Failure and Obstructive Sleep Apnea Obstructive Sleep Apnea and Atrial Fibrillation Obstructive Sleep Apnea and Stroke Clinical Presentation and Diagnostic Approach Differential Diagnosis Management and Therapy Optimum Treatment Avoiding Treatment Errors Central Sleep Apnea Cheyne-Stokes Respiration Obesity Hypoventilation Other Sleep Disorders Restless Legs Syndrome Cardiovascular Medications and Sleep Future Directions Additional Resources Evidence 72 Cardiovascular Disease in Women and Vulnerable Populations Abstract Keywords Geriatric Population Women Racial and Ethnic Considerations Lower Socioeconomic Groups Intellectually Disabled Future Directions Additional Resource Evidence 73 Cardiovascular Disease in the Elderly Abstract Keywords Cardiovascular Physiology in Older Adults Increased Vascular Stiffness Reduced Ventricular Compliance and Cardiac Reserve Impaired Beta-Adrenergic and Parasympathetic Function Degenerative Changes of Conduction System Cardiovascular Pathology in Older Adults Coronary Artery Disease Valvular Heart Disease Heart Failure Arrhythmias Cerebrovascular Disease Peripheral Arterial Occlusive and Aneurysmal Disease Future Directions Additional Resources Evidence