Rural Road Engineering in Developing Countries

Description

Rural Road Engineering in Developing Countries provides a comprehensive coverage of the planning, design, construction, and maintenance of rural roads in developing countries and emerging nations. It covers a wide range of technical and non-technical problems that may confront road engineers working in the developing world, focusing on rural roads which provide important links from villages and farms to markets and offer the public access to health, education, and other services essential for sustainable development. Most textbooks on road engineering are based on experience in industrialised countries with temperate climates or deal only with specific issues, with many aspects of the design and construction of roads in developing regions stemming from inappropriate research undertaken in Europe and the USA. These approaches are frequently unsuitable and unsustainable for rural road network environments, particularly in low to middle income countries. This book takes on board a more recent research and application focus on rural roads, integrating it for a broad range of readers to access current information on good practice for sustainable road engineering in developing countries. The book particularly suits transportation engineers, development professionals, and graduate students in civil engineering. Cover Half Title Title Page Copyright Page Table of Contents Foreword Authors Abbreviations and Acronyms Introduction 1 Roads, Development and Related Policy Introduction Roads and Rural Development Key Issues The Sustainable Development Goals The Rural Access Index Rural Road Policy The Role of Policy Policy Implementation Strategic Planning References 2 The Whole-Life Road Cycle Introduction Structure of the Whole-Life Road Cycle Life-Cycle Stage Detail Planning Feasibility Final Engineering Design (FED) Construction Maintenance Rehabilitation or Upgrade References 3 Road Classification and Function Introduction Appropriate Classification Road Function The Role of Classification, Standards and Specifications Rural Road Traffic Traffic Types Rural Road Traffic Assessment Rural Road Safety Road Safety in LMICs Improving Rural Road Safety Road Design and Rural Road Safety References 4 Roads and the Green Environment Introduction Road Environment Impacts Water Resources Soil Degradation Surface Flow and Flooding Health and Safety Impacts on Ecosystems and Biodiversity Deforestation Socio-Economic Impacts Cultural Heritage Environmental Impact Assessments Background Initial Environmental Examination Screening Scoping Baseline Surveys Assessment Methods and Techniques Environment Impact Management The Environmental Plan Environmental Monitoring Mitigation of Impacts Some General Issues Planning Issues Construction Maintenance Sustainable and Environmentally Optimised Design Options References 5 Appraisal of Low Volume Rural Road Initiatives Introduction Principles An Appraisal Framework for LVRRs Key Issues Political and Policy Support Economic Viability Institutionally Possible Socially Acceptable Technically Appropriate Financially Feasible Environmentally Sustainable Economic Appraisal of Major Roads The Economic Evaluation of low Volume Rural Roads Background Characteristics Methodologies and Tools Highway Development and Management Model, Version 4 (HDM4) The Roads Economic Decision Model (RED) Consumer Surplus Methods Producer Surplus Methods Cost-Effectiveness Analysis Road Maintenance References 6 The Rural Road Environment Introduction The Engineering Environment Factors Climate Hydrology Terrain Construction Material Properties Subgrade and Foundations Traffic The Construction Regime Maintenance The Operational Environment Factors Policies Classification Road Design Standards Technical Specifications Funding Arrangements The Contracting Regime The Green Environment The Socio-Economic Environment Principle Local Employment Development of Local Enterprise Complementary Interventions Road Inventory data Collection and the Design Process References 7 Site Investigation Introduction Investigation Framework Engineering Investigations Non-Engineering Investigations Investigation Aims Ground Investigations Desk-Study Walkover Surveys and Geotechnical Mapping Traffic Surveys Pitting, Boring and Drilling Geophysical Methods Laboratory Testing Aims Testing Programmes Test Identification and Selection The Laboratory Environment Investigation Implementation Level of Investigations Main Investigation Information Climate Resilience Investigations Structures Investigations Tropically Weathered Soil–Rock Materials and Masses The Nature of Tropically Weathered Soil–Rock Profiles Behaviour Investigating TWIMs Data Management Managing Uncertainty for the RDM Laboratory data Management References 8 Natural Construction Materials Introduction The Geological Context Geological Background Material Properties Material Requirements Common Fill Imported Subgrade or Improved Fill Gravel Wearing Course Sub-Base and Base Aggregate Bituminous Surfacing Aggregate Surfacing Block or Paving Stone Aggregates for Structural Concrete Filter/Drainage Material Gabion Fill Embankment Rock Fill Riprap Masonry Stone Materials Management Extraction and Processing of Materials Use of Locally Available Materials Marginal Materials Appropriate Use Assessing Marginal Materials Material Improvement General Mechanical Stabilisation Chemical Stabilisation Principles Cement Stabilisation Lime Stabilisation Bitumen Stabilisation References 9 Geometric Design Introduction Factors Influencing Geometric Design Key Issues Cost Terrain Pavement Type Traffic Volume and Composition Safety Key Geometric Design Elements Design Speed Road Width Cross-Fall Adverse Cross-Fall and Superelevation Gradient Stopping Sight Distance Road Curvature Summary Departures from Standards Examples of Geometric Standards References 10 Earthworks Introduction Excavation Principles Excavation Embankment Design General Approach Soft Soils Foundations Expansive Soils Compaction Cut Formation General Approach Cut to Fill Tropically Weathered Soils and Earthworks Slope Protection and Stabilisation Earthwork and Natural Roadside Slope Instability General Approaches to Slope Stabilisation and Protection Retaining and Revetment Walls Slope Drainage Bio-Engineering General Key Factors Preparation Recommended Techniques References 11 Hydrology and Drainage Introduction Hydrological data Rainfall Rainfall Analysis Data Challenges Information Surveys Flood Discharge Estimation Direct Flow data Climate Change and Hydrology Key Issues General data Sources Changing data and Standards Hydrology and Risk References 12 Cross-Drainage Small Structures Introduction to Cross-Drainage Cross-Drainage Types Simple Culverts Fords and Drifts Potential Benefits of Low-Water Crossings Small Bridges Key Design Cross-Drainage Issues Selection Basic Design Framework Appropriate Design Life of the Structure Physical Siting Traffic The Hydrology and Flood Regime at the Structure Location Some Special Design Considerations Local Resources Climate Resilience Safety Maintenance Regime References 13 Low Volume Rural Road Pavement Design Principles Introduction Aims Pavement Components Background Key Pavement Design Issues Rural Road Pavements Options Fitness for Purpose Whole Life Cycle and Costs Environmentally Optimised Design (EOD) Appropriate Use of Locally Available Materials Equilibrium Moisture Content Pavement Design Framework A Phased Approach Road Environment Compatibility Phase I Pavement Option Selection Pavement Design Phase General Approach to Phase II Rural Road Pavement Design Methods Pavement Design Catalogues and Charts The Role of Subgrade and its Assessment Pavement Drainage General Requirement External Drainage Longitudinal Drainage Internal and Subsurface Drainage References 14 Bituminous Pavements Introduction Surfacing Options Bitumen Options Bitumen Use Sand Seal Slurry Seal Chip Seal Otta Seal Cape Seal Penetration Macadam Cold Pre-Mix Asphalt Hot Mix Bitumen Macadam Selecting of Seal Options Factors Impacting Bituminous Seal Performance Key Issues in the Design of Bituminous Surfacing Structural Design of low Volume Bituminous Pavements General Approach Design Charts for Bituminous-Sealed Options References 15 Non-Bituminous and Concrete Pavement Options Introduction Background Approaches to Non-Bituminous Detailed Pavement Design Earth and Gravel Roads Engineered Natural Surface (ENS) Natural Gravel Surfaced Pavements Stone Roads Waterbound/Drybound Macadam Hand-Packed Stone Stone Setts or Cobble Stones Fired Clay Brick Concrete Pavements General Concrete Slabs Concrete Block Paving Geocells Option Comparison References 16 Spot Improvement Introduction The Spot Improvement Concept Environmentally Optimised Design Spot Improvement Principles Application Programming Prioritisation Links to Climate Resilience Strengthening Implementation References 17 Climate Resilience Introduction Climate Change Background Definitions Climate and Rural Roads Climate Resilience Strategy Climate Resilience Principles Climate Resilience Performance Levels The Importance of Policy and Planning Climate Resilience Application Climate Resilience in the Road Life Cycle Climate Resilience Application Climate Resilience Adaptation Options Adaptation data Engineering Options Climate Resilience Non-Engineering Options References 18 Procurement and Documentation Introduction Procurement Strategy Contracting Options In-House or Agency Conventional Contracts Design and Build Concessions Performance-Based Contracting Supervision Contracts Appropriate Documentation Final Engineering Design Standard Documents Technical Specifications The Bidding Process Prequalification Bid Submission Evaluation and Appointment References 19 Construction Supervision and Quality Management Introduction Quality Management The Framework Quality Control and the Quality Plan Quality Assurance Supervision Activities Aims and Responsibilities Key Supervision Activities Laboratory and in Situ Testing Approving Material Use The Observational Method Technical Audits Objective Procedures for Technical Audits As-Built Survey References 20 Road Maintenance Strategy Introduction Rural Road Maintenance Management Aims Challenges Road Maintenance Policy Policy as Driver of Maintenance Policy Framework Associated Strategy The Maintenance Environment Key Factors Climate Change and Maintenance Flexibility of Response Principal Actions Maintenance Cycle and Budgeting Framework Maintenance Management System: Basic Elements Information Management Condition data Analysis Low-Cost Roughness Measurement High-Tech Approaches to Rural Road Condition data Collection Maintenance Management Performance The Road Preservation Pyramid Monitoring and Audit References 21 Road Maintenance Procedures Introduction Key Rural Road Maintenance Issues Maintenance Aims Classification Sequence of Key Actions Specific Maintenance Actions Carriageway and Roadside Timing Structures Procurement and Implementation Contracting Options Force Account Private Sector: Conventional Quantity-Based Contracts Performance-Based Contracts Contracting Entities Implementation Challenges Training Requirements Reducing the Maintenance Burden Climate Change Adaptation References 22 Appropriate Technology Introduction Key Definitions Local Resources Labour-Based Operations Intermediate Equipment Heavy Equipment Based or Capital Intensive Roadworks Technology Background Development of Labour-Based Approaches Choosing an Appropriate Technology Technology Choice Review Key Issues Heavy Equipment Use for Unpaved Rural Roads Labour-Based Road works Technology Intermediate Technology Equipment Case Studies in Appropriate Technology for Roadworks Kenya Zimbabwe Vietnam: Intermediate Technology in Rural Road Construction Creating the Enabling Environment for Technology Change Key Issues Stakeholder Roles Summary References Appendix A: Standard Data Collection Sheets Glossary of Technical Terms Index