Experimental Soil Fertility and Biology

Description

Soil fertility and plant nutrition is an applied science that integrates knowledge across all disciplines of soil and plant sciences to provide nutrients effectively and efficiently to plants. Efficient use of nutrients is required not only to maximize agricultural production but also to protect air, soil, and water quality as well as the natural resources involved in providing fertilizers to support agricultural production. This book, Experimental Soil Biology and Fertility, by Dr. A. S. Mailappa, is truly a tour de force of condensation of the essentials of scientific knowledge and approaches to soil science and discusses the various aspects of soil fertility and crop nutrition with a focus on collection, preparation, and analysis of essential plant nutrients in soil, plant, and water. This book is unique, written in a simple and lucid manner and covering all aspects of soil fertility and biology in comprehensive chapters. This book is organized to facilitate rapid location of information, while being written in a readable style. The topics and discussion in this self-contained book are practical and user-friendly, yet comprehensive enough to cover material presented in upper-level soil and plant science courses. It allows practitioners with general background knowledge to feel confident applying the principles presented to soil/crop production systems. Readership: students / teachers / researchers / practitioners of agricultural universities/ institutes, engaged in teaching, research and extension activities related to agriculture, horticulture, forestry, and other allied disciplines. Cover Half Title Title Page Copyright Page Table of Contents Foreword Preface Author Biography Glossary 1 Good Laboratory Practices and Laboratory Safety: OECD (1998) 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Safety Aspects 1.3 Laboratory Hazards 1.4 Preparing for the Lab 1.5 Laboratory Tips for Students Using Organic Substances 1.6 Safety and Quality Contract 1.7 Laboratory Safety: General Safety Rules 1.7.1 General 1.7.2 Personal Protection, Clothing, and Hair 1.7.3 Chemical Handling 1.7.4 Chemical Storage 1.7.5 Pressure and Vacuum Systems 1.7.6 Container Handling 1.7.7 Chemical Spills and Disposal of Chemical Wastes 1.7.8 Laboratory Precautions and Safety Procedures 1.7.9 Laboratory Setup 1.7.10 Laboratory Workbenches 1.7.11 Preventive Measures for Laboratory Bench Work 1.7.11.1 General 1.7.11.2 Pipetting 1.7.11.3 Microscopy 1.7.11.4 Fume Hoods 1.7.12 Recommended Safety and Emergency Equipment for the Laboratory 1.7.12.1 Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) 1.7.12.2 Safety and Emergency Equipment 2 Basic Principles of Analytical Techniques and Instrumental Methods 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Advantages of Instrumental Methods 2.3 Classification of Instrumental Methods 2.4 Basic Principles of Instrumental Methods 2.4.1 Conductometry 2.4.2 Potentiometry 2.4.3 Colorimetry 2.4.4 Spectroscopy 2.4.5 Flame Photometry/Flame Emission Spectroscopy 2.4.6 Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry (AAS) 2.4.7 Chromatography 3 Analytical Chemistry: Basic Concepts 3.1 Analytical Chemistry 3.2 Qualitative Analysis 3.3 Quantitative Analysis 3.4 Basic Principles in Analytical Chemistry 3.4.1 Mass and Weight 3.4.2 Atom and Atomic Weight 3.4.3 Molecule and Molecular Weight 3.4.4 Avogadro’s Number 3.4.5 Equivalent Weight 3.4.6 Standard Solutions 3.4.7 Strength Or Concentration of a Solution 3.4.7.1 Normal Solution Or Normality 3.4.7.2 Molar Solution Or Molarity 3.4.7.3 Molal Solution 3.4.7.4 Mole Fraction 3.4.7.5 Formal Solution 3.4.7.6 Percentage Composition By Weight 3.4.7.7 Strength Or Percentage Strength 3.4.7.8 Parts Per Million (Ppm) 3.4.7.9 Milli Equivalent Per Liter 3.4.8 Titration 3.4.9 Titrant 3.4.10 Titrate 3.4.11 Equivalence Point Or End Point 3.4.12 Indicators 3.4.12.1 Internal Indicators 3.4.12.2 External Indicators 3.4.12.3 Self Indicator/Auto Indicator 4 Laboratory Vessels and Their Uses 4.1 Beakers 4.2 Pipettes 4.3 Burettes 4.4 Graduated Or Measuring Cylinders 4.5 Volumetric Flasks 4.6 Conical Flasks 4.7 Funnels 4.8 Porcelain Crucibles and Basins 4.9 Glass Wash Bottles and Polythene Squeeze Bottles 4.10 Gooch Crucibles 4.11 Sintered Glass Crucibles 4.12 Buckner Funnels 4.13 Filter Flasks 4.14 Silica Basins and Crucibles 4.15 Platinum Crucibles 4.16 Desiccators 4.17 Miscellaneous Tools 4.18 Cleanliness of Glassware 5 Basic Techniques of Analytical Chemistry 5.1 Volumetric Techniques Or Titrimetric Analysis 5.2 Important Primary Standards 5.2.1 Acids 5.2.2 Bases 5.2.3 Oxidizing Agents 5.2.4 Reducing Agents 5.2.5 Others 5.3 Iodometry 5.4 Argentometry (Silver Nitrate Titrations) 5.6 Gravimetric Analysis 6 Preparation of Primary Standard Solutions 6.1 Principle 6.2 Chemicals That Can Be Chosen as Primary Standards 6.3 Preparation of 0.1N Na2Co3 of 250mL 6.3.1 Reagents Required 6.3.2 Apparatus Required 6.3.3 Procedure 7 Preparation of Secondary Standard Solution of an Acid 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Principle 7.3 Preparation of 0.1N HCl of 250mL (An Example) 7.3.1 Reagents Required 7.3.2 Apparatus Required 7.3.3 Procedure 7.3.4 Observation and Calculation 7.3.5 Format of Titration Table 8 Preparation of Secondary Standard Solution of a Base 8.1 Principle 8.2 Preparation of 0.1N KOH of 250mL (An Example) 8.2.1 Reagents Required 8.2.2 Apparatus Required 8.2.3 Procedure 8.2.4 Observation and Calculation 8.2.5 Format of Titration Table 9 Working Principle of Some Important Instruments: (Smith, 1990; Robinson et al., 2014) 9.1 PH Meter 9.2 Conductivity Meter 9.2.1 Reporting the Levels 9.2.2 Conductivity Standard Solutions 9.3 UV-Visible Spectrophotometer 9.4 Flame Photometer 9.4.1 Theory 9.4.2 General Tips for Flame Photometry 9.5 Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer 9.5.1 Make Up Three Standards 9.5.2 Characteristic Concentration Vs Detection Limit 9.5.3 Specific Interference Problems in Elemental Analysis By AAS 9.5.4 Instrument Setting for AAS 9.6 Inductively Coupled Plasma (ICP) Emission Spectroscopy 9.7 Inductively Coupled Plasma–Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS) 9.8 Microwave Digestion System 9.9 Auto Kjeldahl Nitrogen Analyzer 9.10 High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) 9.10.1 Liquid Chromatography Applications 9.11 Gas Chromatography (GC) 9.11.1 Factors That Affect GC Separations 9.12 Dissolved Oxygen Meter 9.13 Direct Current Plasma (DCP) Emission 9.14 Fiber Analyzer 10 Collection and Preparation of Soil Samples for Laboratory Analysis 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Materials Required 10.3 Collection of Soil Samples 10.3.1 Collection of Soil Samples From the Field 10.3.2 Collection of Soil Samples From a Profile 10.4 Preparation of Soil Samples for Analysis 10.4.1 Subsampling for Analysis 10.5 Things to Learn 11 Estimation of Soil PH 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Importance 11.3 Principle 11.4 Apparatus and Materials Required 11.5 Procedure 11.5.1 Standardization of PH Meter 11.5.2 PH Measurement 11.6 Things to Learn 12 Estimation of Electrical Conductivity of Soil 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Principle 12.3 Apparatus and Materials Required 12.4 Procedure 12.5 Things to Learn 13 Estimation of Organic Carbon Content of Soil: [Titrimetric/Walkley and Black (1934) Method] 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Importance 13.3 Principle 13.4 Reactions 13.5 Apparatus and Materials Required 13.6 Reagents Required 13.7 Procedure 13.8 Observation and Calculation 13.9 Interpretation (Fertility Rating) 13.10 Things to Learn 14 Determination of Available Nitrogen in Soil: [Alkaline Permanganate/Subbiah and Asija (1956) Method] 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Importance 14.3 Principle 14.4 Reactions 14.5 Apparatus and Materials Required 14.6 Reagents Required 14.7 Procedure 14.8 Observation and Calculation 14.9 Interpretation (Fertility Rating) 14.10 Things to Learn 15 Estimation of Available Phosphorus in Soil: [Bray’s Method for Acid Soils; Olsen’s Method for Neutral and Alkaline Soils] 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Importance 15.3 Estimation of Available Phosphorus 15.3.1 Bray Method for Acid Soils (Bray and Kurtz, 1945) 15.3.1.1 Principle 15.3.1.2 Reactions 15.3.1.3 Apparatus and Materials Required 15.3.1.4 Reagents Required 15.3.1.5 Procedure 15.3.1.6 Observation and Calculation 15.3.1.7 Interpretation (Fertility Rating) 15.3.2 Olsen’s Method—Neutral and Alkaline Soils (Olsen Et Al., 1954) 15.3.2.1 Principle 15.3.2.2 Reactions 15.3.2.3 Apparatus and Materials Required 15.3.2.4 Reagents Required 15.3.2.5 Procedure 15.3.2.6 Observation and Calculation 15.3.2.7 Interpretation (Fertility Rating) 15.4 Things to Learn 16 Estimation of Available Potassium in Soil: [Hanway and Heidel (1952) Method] 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Importance 16.3 Principle 16.4 Reactions 16.5 Apparatus and Materials Required 16.6 Reagents Required 16.7 Procedure 16.7.1 Precautions 16.8 Observation and Calculation 16.9 Interpretation (Fertility Rating) 16.10 Things to Learn 17 Estimation of Available Sulfur in Soil: [Williams and Steinbergs (1959) Method] 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Importance 17.3 Estimation of Available Sulfur 17.3.1 Heat Soluble S 17.3.1.1 Introduction 17.3.1.2 Apparatus and Materials Required 17.3.1.3 Reagents Required 17.3.1.4 Procedure 17.3.2 CaCl2 Extractable-S 17.3.2.1 Introduction 17.3.2.2 Apparatus and Materials Required 17.3.2.3 Reagents Required 17.3.2.4 Procedure 17.4 Observation and Calculation 17.5 Interpretation 17.6 Things to Learn 18 Estimation of Available Micronutrients in Soil: [DTPA, Lindsay and Norvell (1978) Method] 18.1 Principle 18.2 Determination of Available Zinc 18.2.1 Apparatus and Materials Required 18.2.2 Reagents Required 18.2.3 Procedure 18.3 Determination of Available Copper 18.3.1 Apparatus and Materials Required 18.3.2 Reagents Required 18.3.3 Procedure 18.4 Determination of Available Iron 18.4.1 Apparatus and Materials Required 18.4.2 Reagents Required 18.4.3 Procedure 18.5 Determination of Available Manganese 18.5.1 Apparatus and Materials Required 18.5.2 Reagents Required 18.5.3 Procedure 18.6 Observation and Calculation 18.7 Things to Learn 19 Determination of Water-Soluble Carbonate and Bicarbonate in Soil: (Titrimetric Method) 19.1 Introduction 19.2 Importance 19.3 Principle 19.4 Reactions 19.5 Apparatus and Materials Required 19.6 Reagents Required 19.7 Procedure 19.7.1 Extraction 19.7.2 Volumetric Analysis 19.7.2.1 Carbonates 19.7.2.1 Bicarbonates 19.8 Observation and Calculation 19.9 Interpretation 19.10 Things to Learn 20 Determination of Water-Soluble Chloride in Soil: (Argentimetric Method) 20.1 Introduction 20.2 Importance 20.3 Principle 20.4 Reactions 20.5 Apparatus and Materials Required 20.6 Reagents Required 20.7 Procedure 20.8 Observation and Calculation 20.9 Interpretation 20.10 Things to Learn 21 Determination of Water-Soluble Calcium and Magnesium in Soil: (Complexometric Titration Method/Versenate Method) 21.1 Introduction 21.2 Principle 21.3 Apparatus and Materials Required 21.4 Reagents Required 21.5 Procedure 21.5.1 Preparation of Soil Extract 21.5.2 Pretreatment of Soil Extract 21.5.3 Determination of Calcium Alone 21.5.4 Determination of Calcium + Magnesium 21.6 Observation and Calculation 21.7 Things to Learn 22 Determination of Water-Soluble Sodium and Potassium in Soil: (Flame Photometric Method) 22.1 Principle 22.2 Apparatus and Materials Required 22.3 Reagents Required 22.4 Procedure 22.5 Observation and Calculation 22.6 Things to Learn 23 Determination of Cation Exchange Capacity of Soil 23.1 Principle 23.2 Apparatus and Materials Required 23.3 Reagents Required 23.4 Procedure 23.5 Observation and Calculation 23.6 Things to Learn 24 Determination of Exchangeable Potassium in Soil 24.1 Principle 24.2 Apparatus and Materials Required 24.3 Reagents Required 24.4 Procedure 24.5 Observation and Calculation 24.6 Things to Learn 25 Determination of Exchangeable Sodium in Soil 25.1 Principle 25.2 Apparatus and Materials Required 25.3 Reagents Required 25.4 Procedure 25.5 Observation and Calculation 25.6 Things to Learn 26 Determination of Exchangeable Calcium and Magnesium in Soil 26.1 Principle 26.2 Apparatus and Materials Required 26.3 Reagents Required 26.4 Procedure 26.4.1 Preparation of Ammonium Acetate Extract 26.4.2 Pretreatment of Soil Extract 26.4.3 Determination of Calcium Alone 26.4.4 Determination of Calcium + Magnesium 26.5 Observation and Calculation 26.6 Things to Learn 27 Determination of Lime Requirement of Soil: [Shoemaker, McLean and Pratt (SMP) Method, 1961] 27.1 Introduction 27.2 Principle 27.3 Apparatus and Materials Required 27.4 Reagents Required 27.5 Procedure 27.6 Observation and Calculation 27.7 Things to Learn 28 Determination of Gypsum Requirement of Soil: [Schoonover (1952) Method] 28.1 Introduction 28.2 Principle 28.3 Apparatus and Materials Required 28.4 Reagents Required 28.5 Procedure 28.6 Observation and Calculation 28.7 Things to Learn 29 Enumeration of Microorganisms in Soil: Preparation of Serial Dilution 29.1 Introduction 29.2 Apparatus and Materials Required 29.3 Procedure 29.4 Observation and Calculation 29.5 Things to Learn 30 Composition and Preparation of Microbiological Media 30.1 Introduction 30.2 Functions of Different Nutrients 30.3 Materials and Reagents Required 30.4 Composition of Generally Used Media 30.5 Procedure 31 Sterilization Techniques: Sterilization of Media and Glassware 31.1 Introduction 31.2 Materials and Apparatus Required 31.3 Sterilization Techniques 31.3.1 Sterilization With Steam Under Pressure (Moist Heat) 31.3.1.1 Operational Procedure of the Autoclave 31.3.2 Filtration Sterilization 31.3.3 Sterilization By Dry Heat: Hot Air Oven 32 Determination of Mineralization Rate of Organic Carbon Compounds: A Measure of Microbial Activity in Soil 32.1 Introduction 32.2 Materials and Reagents Required 32.3 Procedure 33 Estimation of the Nitrifying Power of Soil 33.1 Introduction 33.2 Apparatus and Reagents Required 33.3 Procedure 33.4 Observations 34 Isolation and Quantitative Estimation of Azotobacter in Soils 34.1 Introduction 34.2 Isolation of Azotobacter 34.2.1 Materials and Reagents Required 34.2.2 Procedure 34.3 Quantitative Estimation of Azotobacter in Soils 34.3.1 Procedure 35 Isolation and Quantitative Estimation of Rhizobia in Soils 35.1 Introduction 35.2 Isolation of Rhizobia From Root Nodules 35.2.1 Materials and Reagents Required 35.2.2 Procedure 35.2.3 Observations 36 Isolation and Purification of Ectomycorrhizal Fungi 36.1 Introduction 36.2 Isolation of Ectomycorrhizal Fungi 36.3 Collection of Sporocarp 36.4 Collection of Ectomycorrhizae 36.5 Isolation From Sclerotia 36.6 Preparation for Isolation 36.7 Isolation From Sporocarp Tissue 36.8 Isolation From Ectomycorrhizae 36.9 Isolation From Sclerotia 36.10 Isolation From Sclerotia 37 Collection and Preparation of Plant Samples for Laboratory Analysis 37.1 Introduction 37.2 Plant Sampling 37.3 Procedure for Plant Sampling 37.4 Things to Learn 38 Determination of Total Nitrogen in Plants: (Micro Kjeldahl Method) 38.1 Introduction 38.2 Importance 38.3 Principle 38.4 Apparatus and Materials Required 38.5 Reagents Required 38.6 Procedure 38.7 Observation and Calculation 38.8 Interpretation 38.9 Things to Learn 39 Determination of Total Phosphorus in Plants: (Colorimetric/Vanadomolybdate Yellow Color Method) 39.1 Introduction 39.2 Importance 39.3 Principle 39.4 Apparatus and Materials Required 39.5 Reagents Required 39.6 Procedure 39.6.1 Preparation of Standard Curve 39.7 Observation and Calculation 39.8 Interpretation 39.9 Things to Learn 40 Determination of Total Potassium in Plants: (Flame Photometric Method) 40.1 Introduction 40.2 Importance 40.3 Principle 40.4 Apparatus and Materials Required 40.5 Reagents Required 40.6 Procedure 40.6.1 Preparation of Standard Curve 40.7 Observation and Calculation 40.8 Interpretation 40.9 Things to Learn 41 Assessment of Quality of Irrigation Water 41.1 Importance 41.2 Criteria for Assessment of Quality of Irrigation Water 41.2.1 Salinity Hazard 41.2.2 Sodicity Hazard 41.2.3 Salinity and Sodicity Hazard 41.2.4 Alkalinity Hazard 41.2.5 Permeability Hazard 41.2.6 Specific Ion Toxicity Hazard 41.3 Chemical Analysis of Water 41.3.1 Determination of Carbonate and Bicarbonate 41.3.1.1 Principle 41.3.1.2 Apparatus and Materials Required 41.3.1.3 Reagents Required 41.3.1.4 Procedure 41.3.1.5 Observation and Calculation 41.3.2 Determination of Chloride 41.3.2.1 Principle 41.3.2.2 Apparatus and Materials Required 41.3.2.3 Reagents Required 41.3.2.4 Procedure 41.3.2.5 Observation and Calculation 41.3.3 Determination of Calcium and Magnesium 41.3.3.1 Principle 41.3.3.2 Apparatus and Materials Required 41.3.3.3 Reagents Required 41.3.3.4 Procedure 41.3.3.5 Observation and Calculation 41.3.4 Determination of Sodium and Potassium 41.3.4.1 Principle 41.3.4.2 Apparatus and Materials Required 41.3.4.3 Reagents Required 41.3.4.4 Procedure 41.3.4.5 Observation and Calculation Bibliography Appendices Appendix I Molecular and Equivalent Weights of Some Important Compounds Appendix II Guidelines for the Preparation of Standard Solution Appendix III Strength of Aqueous Solutions of Some Acids and Aqueous Ammonia Appendix IV Choice of Indicators Appendix V Appendix VI Conversion Factors Appendix VII Some Important Units and Relationships Appendix VIII Some Important Conversion Factors Appendix IX Sieve Size Appendix X Some Prefix, Symbols, and Their Meanings Appendix XI Fertility Rating Chart for Available Macronutrients in Soils Appendix XII Critical Limits/Level of Available Micronutrients in Soils Appendix XIII Average Nutrient Content (%) of Organic Sources Appendix XIV Nutrient Content, Moisture, Free Acidity, and Equivalent Acidity/Basicity of Nitrogenous Fertilizers Appendix XV Nutrient Content, Moisture %, and Free Acidity of Phosphatic Fertilizers Appendix XVI Nutrient Content and Moisture % of Potassic Fertilizers Appendix XVII Acid Equivalent of Acid Forming Fertilizers Appendix XVIII Equivalent Basicity of Basic Fertilizers Appendix XIX Ca, Mg, and S Contents of Some Fertilizer Materials Appendix XX Secondary and Micronutrients Content of Fertilizer Materials Appendix XXI General Recommended Doses of Micronutrient Fertilizers Appendix XXII Some Indicator Plants of Nutrient Deficiency Index