Springer Handbook of Geographic Information

Description

Computer science provides a powerful tool that was virtually unknown three generations ago. Some of the classical fields of knowledge are geodesy (surveying), cartography, and geography. Electronics have revolutionized geodetic methods. Cartography has faced the dominance of the computer that results in simplified cartographic products. All three fields make use of basic components such as the Internet and databases. The Springer Handbook of Geographic Information is organized in three parts, Basics, Geographic Information and Applications. Some parts of the basics belong to the larger field of computer science. However, the reader gets a comprehensive view on geographic information because the topics selected from computer science have a close relation to geographic information. The Springer Handbook of Geographic Information is written for scientists at universities and industry as well as advanced and PhD students. Preface Abbreviations Contents List of Contributors Part A Basics and Computer Science 1 Modeling of Geographic Information 1.1 Abstracting the Real World 1.2 Definitions 1.3 Modeling Features References 2 Mathematics and Statistics 2.1 Data Integration with Adjustment Techniques 2.2 2-D Datum Transformations 2.3 Geostatistics References 3 Databases 3.1 Historical Background 3.2 Relational Model 3.3 Object-Oriented Model 3.4 NoSQL 3.5 Indexing with B-Trees 3.6 Spatial Databases 3.7 Spatial Query Processing 3.8 Spatial Indexing 3.9 Network Databases 3.10 Raster Databases 3.11 Spatiotemporal Databases 3.12 Spatial Database Systems References 4 Encoding of Geographic Information 4.1 Encoding Concepts 4.2 Sample Encoding Rules 4.3 Commonly Used Formats to Encode Geographic Information References 5 Big Data Analytics 5.1 Overview 5.2 Definitions 5.3 Example Problems 5.4 Big Data Analysis Concepts 5.5 Technology and Tools 5.6 Challenges 5.7 Summary References Part B Geographic Information 6 Geographic Information Systems 6.1 Architecture of a GIS 6.2 GIS Functionality References 7 Change Detection 7.1 Definition 7.2 Development of Change Detection over Time 7.3 Overview of Methods 7.4 Typical Applications 7.5 Probable Future Directions References 8 Geodesy 8.1 Basics 8.2 Concepts 8.3 Reference Systems and Reference Frames 8.4 Coordinate Reference System 8.5 Height Systems and the Vertical Datum 8.6 Geopotential Models and the Geoid 8.7 Time Systems 8.8 Conversions, Transformations, and Projections 8.9 Coordinate Determination References 9 Data Acquisition in Geographic Information Systems 9.1 Optical Sensors 9.2 Navigation Sensors 9.3 Photogrammetry 9.4 Sensor Fusion 9.5 Mapping Products References 10 Remote Sensing 10.1 What Is Remote Sensing? 10.2 Theoretical Background 10.3 Technical Basics of Remote Sensing Data Acquisition 10.4 Data 10.5 Processing of Remote Sensing Data 10.6 Applications 10.7 Recent and Future Developments References 11 Surveying 11.1 Surveying Instruments 11.2 Angle Meters and Measurement 11.3 Distance Measurement 11.4 Leveling 11.5 Global Navigation Satellite Systems 11.6 More Surveying Methods References 12 Geometry and Topology 12.1 Geometry 12.2 Topology 12.3 Graph Theory and the Königsberg Bridge Problem References 13 Cartography 13.1 Cartography in Review 13.2 Types of Maps 13.3 Cartographic Compilation 13.4 Symbols 13.5 Color 13.6 Type 13.7 Relief Portrayal 13.8 Map Design 13.9 Layout References 14 Geospatial Metadata 14.1 Background 14.2 Interoperability 14.3 Applying Geospatial Metadata 14.4 Economic Benefits of Geospatial Metadata 14.5 Geospatial Metadata Element Types 14.6 Applying Metadata to the Data 14.7 Geospatial Metadata Standards 14.8 Geospatial Metadata Outlook References 15 Standardization 15.1 Interoperability 15.2 Basics of Standards 15.3 Geomatics Standards 15.4 Liaison Members of ISO/TC 211 15.5 Open Geospatial Consortium References 16 Geospatial Web Services 16.1 Background 16.2 Elements of Distributed Computing 16.3 Geospatial Web Services 16.4 Integrated Geospatial Client 16.5 Deploying Web Services 16.6 The Emergence of APIs References 17 Geosemantic Interoperability and the Geospatial Semantic Web 17.1 Historical Background 17.2 What Is Semantics about? 17.3 Semantics Through Cognition 17.4 Ontology 17.5 Geosemantic Interoperability 17.6 Spatial Data Infrastructure and Geospatial Information Environment in Support of Geosemantic Interoperability 17.7 Geographic Information Standards – a Key Element for Geosemantic Interoperability 17.8 Geospatial Semantic Web Aiming at Geosemantic Interoperability 17.9 Conclusion References 18 Registration of Geospatial Information Elements 18.1 Background 18.2 Requirements 18.3 Concept of a Register 18.4 Register Versus Registry 18.5 Registration Process 18.6 Register Structure 18.7 Federated Registers 18.8 Implementation of Registers 18.9 Example Registers 18.10 The EPSG Geodetic Parameter Registry References 19 Security for Open Distributed Geospatial Information Systems 19.1 Introduction 19.2 Security Requirements 19.3 Standards for Interoperable Implementation of Security Functions 19.4 Summary References Part C Applications 20 Cadastre 20.1 International Standardization in the Field of Cadastre 20.2 Cadastre and Land Register in Germany 20.3 The German Cadastral System in the Digital Age 20.4 Cadastre and Land Register in The Netherlands 20.5 Cadastral and Land Register Data 20.6 Developments in the (Cadastral) Spatial Domain 20.7 Concluding Remarks References 21 Building Information Modeling 21.1 Introduction to Building Information Modeling 21.2 Modeling 21.3 Collaboration Processes 21.4 BIM vs. GIM 21.5 Interoperability of BIM and GIM 21.6 Dissemination of BIM 21.7 Summary Further Reading 22 Location-Based Services 22.1 LBS Components 22.2 LBS Applications 22.3 Core Tasks in LBS 22.4 Current Research Trends and Research Challenges 22.5 Summary References 23 Marine Geographic Information Systems 23.1 Electronic Navigational Charts for Ship Operation at Sea 23.2 Chart Functions 23.3 Electronic Chart Data 23.4 Data Services 23.5 Data Display 23.6 Electronic Charts as a Component of E-Navigation References 24 Geographic Information Systems in Agriculture 24.1 Spatial Data in Agriculture 24.2 Integrated Administration and Control System 24.3 Precision Agriculture 24.4 GIS on the Farm of Tomorrow 24.5 Outlook References 25 Geographic Information Systems in Defense 25.1 Background and History 25.2 Scenarios 25.3 Situational Awareness 25.4 Network-Centric Warfare 25.5 Core Services 25.6 Functional Area Services 25.7 Military Standards 25.8 New Generation of Military Standards 25.9 Military Datasets References 26 Geographic Information Systems for Transportation 26.1 GIS and Intelligent Transport Systems 26.2 Overall Legal Framework for Geospatial Information for Transportation in Europe 26.3 Transport Network Models 26.4 Transport Network Databases in Operation 26.5 Open Data Services 26.6 Location Referencing Methods Used for Transportation 26.7 Standards for Provision and Exchange 26.8 Discussion References 27 Geology 27.1 Field Work 27.2 Geographic Information in Geology 27.3 Maps and Models 27.4 3-D Geological Models 27.5 Types of Geological Models 27.6 Data Structures 27.7 3-D Geological Modeling Software 27.8 Spatial Data Infrastructures 27.9 Future Challenges References 28 Geographic Information Systems in Energy and Utilities 28.1 GIS is now a Platform 28.2 Overall Picture 28.3 System Design 28.4 Applications 28.5 Summary Further Reading 29 Geographic Information Systems in Health and Human Services 29.1 What Is Health? 29.2 A Brief History of Geography and GIS in HHS 29.3 Geography Is Destiny in Health 29.4 GIS Relevance to Public Health 29.5 GIS and HHS Education 29.6 An Abbreviated History of “Geomedicine” 29.7 Summary References 30 Open Source – GIS 30.1 History of FOSS Geospatial Tools 30.2 Free and Open Source Licenses 30.3 Desktop GIS 30.4 Data Stores and Datacubes 30.5 Spatial Tools 30.6 Web Services 30.7 Geospatial Libraries 30.8 Virtual Globes 30.9 OSGeoLive References 31 Smart Cities 31.1 Introduction 31.2 Unique Capabilities of Spatially Enabled Systems 31.3 Spatial Data Options for Smart Cities 31.4 Spatial Standards, Data Models, Architecture, and Organization 31.5 Use Categories and Use Cases for Spatially Smart Cities 31.6 Return on Investment 31.7 Conclusion: Smart Cities Must Be Spatially Enabled References Glossary Index