Aquatic Animal Nutrition: Organic Macro- and Micro-Nutrients

Description

As sequel to Aquatic Animal Nutrition – A Mechanistic Perspective from Individuals to Generations, the present treatise on organic macro- and micronutrients continues the unique cross fertilization of aquatic ecology/ecophysiology and aquaculture. This treatise considers proteins and their constituents, carbohydrates from mono- to polysaccharides, fatty acids from free acids to fat, and waxes. It becomes obvious that these organic nutrients are more than only simple fuel for the metabolism of animals; rather, their constituents have messenger and controlling function for the actual consuming individual and even for succeeding generations. This aspect will become particularly clear by putting the organisms under consideration back into their ecosystem with their interrelationships and interdependencies. Furthermore, micronutrients, such as vitamins and nucleotides as well as exogenous enzymes, are in the focus of this volume with known and still-to-be-discovered controlling physiological and biomolecular functions. Aquatic Animal Nutrition – Organic Macro and Micro Nutrients addresses se­veral gaps in nutritional research and practice. One major gap is the lack of com­mon research standards and protocols for nutritional studies so that virtually incomparable approaches have to be compared. This applies also to the studied animals, since most approaches disregard intraspecific variabilities and the existence of epimutations in farmed individuals. Furthermore, recalling the Mechanistic Perspective from Individuals to Generations, dietary benefits and deficiencies have effects on succeeding generations. In most studies, this long-term and sustainable aspect is overruled by pure short-term production aspects. By comparing nutritional behavior and success of fishes and invertebrates, Aqua­tic Animal Nutrition points out different metabolic pathways in these animal groups and discusses how, for instance, fishes would benefit when having some successful metabolic pathway of invertebrates. Application of novel ge­ne­tic techniques will help turn this vision into reality. However, a widely missing link in the current nutritional research is epigenetics regarding transgenerational heritages of acquired morphological and physiological properties. To in­crease public acceptance, nutritional optimization of farmed animals based on this mechanism, rather than genetical engineering, appears promising. Preface Contents Chapter 1: Aquatic Animal Nutrition: Organic Macro- and Micronutrients-`Do Blind Men and Their Elephant Get Wet Feet?´ References Chapter 2: Protein Requirement-`Only Meat Makes You Strong´ 2.1 Requirement 2.2 Amino Acid Landscapes 2.3 Nutrient-Specific Foraging 2.4 Concluding Remarks References Chapter 3: Utilization of Proteinaceous Nutrients-`Becoming Strong with Meat´ 3.1 Invertebrates 3.1.1 Crustaceans 3.1.2 Mollusks 3.1.3 Echinoderms 3.1.3.1 Sea Urchins Nutrient Interactions 3.2 Fishes 3.2.1 Protein Consumption During Ontogenesis 3.2.2 Dietary Protein Excess 3.3 Concluding Remarks References Chapter 4: Peptides or Amino Acids?-`The Smaller, the Better?´ 4.1 Amino Acid and Peptide Sensing 4.2 Amino Acids Versus Oligopeptides 4.2.1 Invertebrates 4.2.2 Fishes 4.3 Dipeptides, Health, and Stress Resistance 4.4 Concluding Remarks References Chapter 5: Amino Acid Function and Requirement-`More than Easy Fuel´ 5.1 Function 5.1.1 Appetite and Growth Regulations 5.1.2 Methyl-Donating Amino Acids and MicroRNAs 5.2 Requirement 5.2.1 Invertebrates 5.2.2 Fishes 5.3 Concluding Remarks References Chapter 6: Simple Amino Acids: Gly, Ala, Asp, Gln-`Pure Easy Fuel?´ 6.1 Glycine and Alanine 6.2 Asparagine 6.3 Glutamine and Glutamate 6.4 Concluding Remark References Chapter 7: The Versatile Amino Acid: Tryptophan-`More Controlling than Fueling´ 7.1 Requirement 7.2 Stress Tolerance and Behavior 7.2.1 Fishes 7.2.1.1 Kynurenic Acid 7.2.2 Invertebrates 7.3 Concluding Remarks References Chapter 8: A Bunch of Amino Acids: Phe, Tyr, Branched-Chain AAs, Ser and Thr-`Much More than Easy Fuel´ 8.1 Phenylalanine and Tyrosine 8.1.1 Phenylalanine 8.1.2 Tyrosine 8.2 Branched-Chain Amino Acids 8.2.1 Leucine and Isoleucine 8.2.1.1 Leucine Uptake and Transport Controlling Function 8.2.1.2 Isoleucine 8.2.2 Valine 8.2.3 Antagonism 8.3 Serine 8.4 Threonine 8.5 Concluding Remarks References Chapter 9: Sulfur Amino Acids-`Much More than Easy Fuel´ 9.1 Methionine 9.1.1 Invertebrates 9.1.2 Fishes 9.1.2.1 Transgenerational Effect 9.2 Methionine Hydroxy Analog 9.3 Cysteine 9.4 Cystine 9.5 Ergothioneine 9.6 Glutathione 9.7 Concluding Remarks References Chapter 10: Basic Amino Acids and Prolines-`Again: Much More than Easy Fuel´ 10.1 Basic Amino Acids 10.1.1 Lysine 10.1.2 Arginine 10.1.2.1 Invertebrates 10.1.2.2 Fishes Creatine 10.1.3 Histidine 10.1.4 Basic Amino Acid Antagonism 10.2 Proline and Hydroxyproline 10.2.1 Proline 10.2.2 Hydroxyproline 10.3 Concluding Remarks References Chapter 11: Taurine-`Controlling Rather than Fueling´ 11.1 Taurine Biosynthesis and Physiology 11.2 Taurine and Immunity 11.3 Interactions with Nutrients 11.4 Concluding Remark References Chapter 12: Nonprotein Amino Acids-`Fuel at All?´ 12.1 l-Canavanine 12.2 l-Citrulline 12.3 Mimosine 12.4 γ-Aminobutyric Acid (GABA) 12.5 l-3,4-Dihydroxyphenylalanine (l-DOPA) 12.6 l-Carnitine 12.7 l-Ornithine 12.8 Cadaverine 12.9 β-Alanine 12.10 Concluding Remarks References Chapter 13: Carbohydrates with Emphasis on Glucose-`Life´s Little Luxury´ 13.1 Carbohydrate Digestibility 13.2 Carbohydrates and Immunity 13.2.1 Glucose 13.3 Glucosensing 13.4 Rhythmicity 13.5 Concluding Remarks References Chapter 14: Glucose Homeostasis-`Life´s Little Luxury Balanced´ 14.1 Homeostasis: Fishes 14.1.1 Metal Supplementation 14.1.2 Physiological Details 14.2 Homeostasis: Invertebrates 14.3 Regulation 14.3.1 Glycolysis 14.3.2 Gluconeogenesis 14.3.3 Glycophagy 14.4 Concluding Remarks References Chapter 15: Glucose Intolerance-`Life´s Real Luxury?´ 15.1 Tolerance 15.2 Intolerance 15.3 Feeding Habit Reevaluation 15.4 Impairments 15.4.1 Antidotes 15.5 Concluding Remarks References Chapter 16: Carbohydrate Transport-`Life´s Useful Luxury Distributed´ 16.1 Intestinal Transport 16.1.1 Invertebrates 16.1.1.1 Crustaceans 16.1.1.2 Mollusks 16.1.2 Fishes 16.1.2.1 Herbivorous and Omnivorous Fishes 16.1.2.2 Carnivorous Fishes 16.1.3 The Multiple Functions of GLUTs: A Double-Edged Sword? 16.1.3.1 Crustaceans 16.1.3.2 Fishes 16.1.4 Disaccharide Transporter 16.2 Concluding Remarks References Chapter 17: Protein Sparing by Carbohydrates-`Life´s Useful Luxury´ 17.1 Sparing Details 17.2 Concluding Remarks References Chapter 18: Carbohydrate Preference and Metabolism-`Life´s Little Luxury Digested´ 18.1 Invertebrates 18.1.1 Mollusks 18.1.1.1 Haliotis 18.1.2 Echinoderms 18.1.3 Crustaceans 18.2 Fishes 18.2.1 Carnivores 18.2.2 Omnivores 18.2.2.1 Zebrafish 18.2.2.2 Common Carp 18.2.2.3 Nile Tilapia 18.2.2.4 Wuchang (Blunt Snout) Bream 18.2.3 Herbivores 18.2.3.1 Grass Carp 18.2.4 Action of miRNAs 18.3 Concluding Remarks References Chapter 19: Regulatory Potential of Carbohydrates-`Life´s Little Luxury Controls´ 19.1 Growth Modulation 19.2 Gut Microbiota 19.3 Immunity 19.3.1 Adverse Effects 19.3.2 Beneficial Effects 19.4 Concluding Remarks References Chapter 20: Oligosaccharides-`Sweet or Healthy Promises´ 20.1 Disaccharides: Maltose, Sucrose, Trehalose, and Cellobiose 20.2 Raffinose 20.3 Lactosucrose 20.4 Stachyose 20.5 Fructooligosaccharides 20.6 Xylooligosaccharides 20.7 Konjac Oligosaccharides 20.8 Concluding Remark References Chapter 21: Starch-`Gluey Promise´ 21.1 Starches 21.1.1 Invertebrates 21.1.1.1 Mollusks 21.1.1.2 Echinoderms 21.1.1.3 Crustaceans 21.1.2 Fishes 21.1.2.1 Carnivores 21.1.2.2 Omnivores and Herbivores 21.1.3 Nutrigenomics 21.2 Concluding Remarks References Chapter 22: Nonstarch Polysaccharides-`Neither Sweet Nor Gluey-Adverse?´ 22.1 Supplementation of Exoenzymes 22.2 Selected Nonstarch Polysaccharides 22.2.1 Guar Gum 22.2.2 Xylan 22.2.3 Pectin 22.2.3.1 Crustaceans 22.2.3.2 Fishes 22.3 Fibers 22.3.1 Crustaceans 22.3.2 Fishes 22.4 Concluding Remarks References Chapter 23: Lipids-`The Greasy, Unhealthy Stuff´ 23.1 Lipid Requirement 23.1.1 Invertebrates 23.1.1.1 Fresh Water 23.1.1.2 Marine Crustaceans Echinoderms 23.1.2 Fishes 23.1.2.1 Lipid Preference Tributyrin 23.1.2.2 Lipids and Immunity 23.1.2.3 Lipids and Intestinal Microbiota 23.2 Metabolism 23.2.1 Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptors (PPARs) 23.2.2 Retinoid Receptors (RXRs) 23.2.3 MicroRNAs 23.3 High-Fat Diets 23.3.1 Mitigation 23.4 Concluding Remarks References Chapter 24: Lipid Homeostasis and Lipophagy-`The Greasy Stuff Balanced´ 24.1 Lipid Homeostasis 24.2 Lipophagy and Lipid Droplets 24.2.1 Invertebrates 24.2.2 Fishes 24.2.3 Lipid Toxicity 24.3 Concluding Remarks References Chapter 25: Protein Sparing by Lipids-`Learning from Wild Conspecifics´ 25.1 Replaceability of Proteins 25.2 Adipogenesis 25.2.1 Microbiome Feedback 25.3 Concluding Considerations References Chapter 26: Fatty Acids-`Fueling Versus Steering´ 26.1 Fatty Acid Sensing in Fishes 26.1.1 Sensing 26.2 Fatty Acid Transport 26.2.1 Fatty Acid (Uptake) Transporters 26.2.2 ATP-Binding Cassettes 26.2.3 Intracellular Transporters 26.2.4 Fine-Tuning of Fatty Acid Transport 26.3 Regulation of Feed Intake 26.4 Short-Chain Fatty Acids 26.5 Medium-Chain Fatty Acids 26.6 Lipoic Acid 26.7 Saturated Fatty Acids 26.8 Concluding Remarks References Chapter 27: Essential Fatty Acids-`Fueling Versus Controlling´ 27.1 Molecular Interplay 27.2 ω3 or ω6 PUFAs 27.2.1 Invertebrates 27.2.1.1 Mollusks 27.2.1.2 Daphnia and Farmed Shrimps 27.2.2 Fishes 27.2.2.1 ω3 Requirement Broodstocks 27.2.2.2 ω3 + ω6 Requirement 27.2.2.3 EPA, ARA, and DHA 27.2.2.4 The Janus Face of Dietary ARA Transgenerational Effect 27.3 Concluding Remarks References Chapter 28: Biosynthesis of Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids-`Many Can, Some Can´t´ 28.1 Invertebrates 28.1.1 Methyl End (ωx) Desaturases in Invertebrates 28.1.1.1 Dietary Poor Environment 28.1.2 Elongases in Invertebrates 28.2 Fishes 28.2.1 Herbivores 28.2.1.1 Epigenetics 28.2.2 Omnivores 28.2.3 Carnivores 28.2.3.1 Yellow Perch 28.2.3.2 Salmonids 28.3 Concluding Remarks References Chapter 29: LC-PUFAs in Reproduction and Behavior-`Good Cop-Bad Cop?´ 29.1 Reproduction 29.1.1 Arachidonic Acid 29.2 Behavior 29.3 Concluding Remarks References Chapter 30: Trophic Transfer of PUFAs-`Vital Ones Reach Top Predators´ 30.1 Trophic Transfer 30.2 Trophic Upgrade and Trophic Dynamics 30.2.1 Paradigm Shift: Headwater Food Webs 30.3 Man-Made Trophic Downgrading? 30.4 Concluding Remarks References Chapter 31: Sterols, Phospholipids, and Wax Esters-`Stay Healthy, Avoid Cholesterol´ 31.1 Sterols 31.1.1 Cholesterol 31.1.1.1 Invertebrates with Emphasis on Crustaceans Trophic Upgrade Transgenerational Effects 31.1.1.2 Fishes Epigenetic Regulation 31.1.2 Phytosterols 31.1.2.1 Invertebrates 31.1.2.2 Fishes 31.2 Phospholipids 31.2.1 Invertebrates 31.2.1.1 Farmed Invertebrates 31.2.1.2 Zooplankton 31.2.2 Fishes 31.3 Wax Esters 31.4 Concluding Remarks References Chapter 32: Vitamin A-`Does It Keep the Veterinarian Away?´ 32.1 Functional Studies 32.1.1 Invertebrates 32.1.2 Fishes 32.1.2.1 Broodstock Demands 32.2 Cross Talk Between Vitamin A and Vitamin D 32.3 Hypo- and Hypervitaminosis A 32.4 Concluding Remarks References Chapter 33: Vitamin B Complex-`Do These Compounds Keep Veterinarians Away?´ 33.1 Vitamin B1: Thiamin 33.2 Vitamin B2: Riboflavin 33.3 Vitamin B3: Niacin 33.4 Vitamin B5: Pantothenic Acid 33.5 Vitamin B6: Pyridoxine, Pyridoxal, Pyridoxamine 33.6 Vitamin B7: Biotin 33.7 Vitamin B9: Folic Acid 33.8 Vitamin B12: Cobalamin 33.9 Inositol 33.10 Choline 33.11 Concluding Remarks References Chapter 34: Vitamin C-`An Apple a Day Keeps the Veterinarian Away´ 34.1 Effects on Life History Traits 34.2 Interactions 34.2.1 Vitamins 34.2.1.1 Vitamin E 34.2.2 Further Interactions 34.2.2.1 Prebiotics: β-Glucan 34.2.2.2 Minerals 34.3 Hypo- and Hypervitaminosis 34.3.1 Hypovitaminosis 34.3.2 Hypervitaminosis 34.4 Concluding Remarks References Chapter 35: Vitamin D-`Keep the Orthopedist Away!´ 35.1 Skeletal Development 35.2 Requirements 35.2.1 Invertebrates 35.2.2 Fishes 35.2.2.1 Hypervitaminosis D 35.3 Interaction with Nutrients 35.4 Concluding Remarks References Chapter 36: Vitamin E-`Keep Stress Away!´ 36.1 Epigenetics 36.2 Immunity 36.3 Interactions 36.4 Hypo- and Hypervitaminosis 36.4.1 Hypovitaminosis 36.4.2 Hypervitaminosis 36.5 Coenzyme Q 36.6 Concluding Remarks References Chapter 37: Vitamin K-`Keep the Hematologist Away!´ 37.1 Functional Studies 37.1.1 Invertebrates 37.1.2 Fishes 37.2 Concluding Remarks References Chapter 38: Nucleotides-`Only for Fitness Fans?´ 38.1 Invertebrates 38.2 Fishes 38.3 Nucleotides and Immunity 38.3.1 RNA Yeast Extract 38.4 Nucleotides and Fishmeal Replacement 38.5 Concluding Remarks References Chapter 39: Enzymes-`Digestive Assistance from Aliens´ 39.1 Phytases 39.1.1 Limitations and Concerns 39.2 Depolymerizing Enzymes 39.2.1 Carbohydrases 39.2.1.1 Glucanases Amylases Cellulases and Hemicellulases Chitinases 39.2.1.2 Xylanases 39.2.2 Pectinases 39.3 Proteases 39.4 Lipases 39.5 Enzyme Cocktails 39.6 Concluding Remarks References Chapter 40: Intraspecific Variability-`The Apple May Be a PineApple´ 40.1 Invertebrates 40.2 Farmed Fishes 40.2.1 Domestication 40.3 Perspective: Genotyping References Abbreviations Major Microbial Disease Agents of Farmed Aquatic Animals References