Responding to Domestic Violence: The Integration of Criminal Justice and Human Services

Description

Acknowledgments......Page 21 Chapter Overview......Page 22 The Domestic Violence Revolution: Taking Stock......Page 25 Is the Domestic Violence Revolution a Success?......Page 28 The Challenges Before Us......Page 35 Challenges to a Criminal Justice Approach......Page 40 Should Criminal Justice Intervention Be Victim-Centered?......Page 43 The Evolution of This Text......Page 46 Organization of This Edition......Page 49 Conclusion......Page 60 PART I. What Is Domestic Violence?......Page 61 Chapter Overview......Page 62 The Nature and Extent of Domestic Violence......Page 68 Official Domestic Violence Data Sources......Page 69 Unofficial Survey Data......Page 82 Controversies Over Definitions......Page 88 Statutorily Defined Relationships......Page 89 Domestic Violence Offenses......Page 91 Stalking as Coercive Control......Page 94 Who Are the Victims?......Page 98 The Role of Gender......Page 100 Same-Sex Domestic Violence......Page 111 Age......Page 113 Marital Status......Page 115 Socioeconomic Status......Page 116 Racial and Ethnic Variations......Page 117 The Impact of Domestic Violence......Page 127 Injuries......Page 128 Psychological and Quality-of-Life Effects on Victims......Page 129 Monetary Costs......Page 132 Domestic Violence in the Workplace......Page 133 The Impact on Children and Adolescents......Page 136 The Specialized Problem of Stalking in Intimate Relationships......Page 142 The Impact of Stalking......Page 145 Summary......Page 147 Discussion Questions......Page 148 Chapter Overview......Page 150 Historic Attitudes on Domestic Violence......Page 152 English Common Law and European History......Page 153 Early American Strategies and Interventions......Page 157 Enforcement in the Mid-1800s......Page 160 The Continuing Importance of History......Page 163 The Historical Pull Back......Page 164 The Religious Basis for Abuse......Page 167 Why Religion Remains Important......Page 172 The Effect of Religion on Potential Batterers......Page 173 The Effect of Religion on the Behavior of Domestic Violence Victims......Page 178 Domestic Violence Rates Among the Faithful......Page 181 Can Religion Become Part of the Solution?......Page 182 Do Societies Hold Different Standards for Some Religious Communities?......Page 185 The Social Critique Perspective on History and Religion......Page 187 The Feminist Perspective......Page 188 Coercive Control and Domestic Violence......Page 197 Conclusion......Page 199 Discussion Questions......Page 201 Chapter Overview......Page 203 The Complexity of Analyzing Intimate Partner Abuse......Page 205 Individual-Focused Theories of Violence......Page 208 The Role and Use of Batterer Typologies......Page 209 Classifying Batterers by Severity and Frequency of Abuse......Page 211 Typing Batterers by Their Generality of Violence and Psychopathology......Page 213 Who Is Most at Risk of Battering?......Page 219 Biology and Abuse: Are Some Batterers “Pre-Wired” for Abuse?......Page 220 A Question of the Mind?......Page 224 Biological- and Psychological-Based Fear and Anxiety......Page 228 Can Psychology Explain Domestic Abuse?......Page 229 Personality Disorders and Mental Illness......Page 230 Anger Control and the Failure to Communicate......Page 231 Low Self-Esteem......Page 233 Conflict Resolution Capabilities and the Failure to Communicate......Page 234 “Immature” Personality......Page 236 Is Substance Abuse the Linkage Among Sociobiological, Psychological, and Sociological Theories?......Page 237 Are Certain Families Violent?......Page 243 Social Control—Exchange of Violence......Page 245 Family-Based Theories......Page 246 The Violent Family......Page 247 Learning Theory......Page 249 Is Domestic Violence an Intergenerational Problem?......Page 250 Sociodemographic Correlates of Violence and Underserved Populations......Page 253 Poverty and Unemployment......Page 254 Ethnicity and Domestic Violence......Page 259 Domestic Violence in the African American Community......Page 260 Native Americans......Page 265 Coercive Control......Page 266 The Limits of Equating Partner Abuse With Domestic Violence......Page 268 The Theory of Coercive Control......Page 273 The Technology of Coercive Control......Page 277 Coercion......Page 278 Violence......Page 279 The Continuum of Sexual Coercion......Page 280 Intimidation......Page 281 Surveillance......Page 284 Degradation......Page 285 Control......Page 286 Isolation......Page 288 The Materiality of Control......Page 289 Coercive Control and Risk of Fatality......Page 291 Implications of Coercive Control for Changing Policy and Practice......Page 292 Summary......Page 295 Discussion Questions......Page 297 PART II. The Criminal Justice Response......Page 298 Chapter 5 Selective Screening: Barriers to Intervention......Page 299 Chapter Overview......Page 300 Victim Case Screening......Page 303 The Failure to Report Crime......Page 304 Who Reports and Who Does Not......Page 309 Why Has Victim Reporting Increased?......Page 310 Does Social Class Affect the Decision to Report?......Page 312 Bystander Screening......Page 315 The Police Response......Page 318 Police Screening......Page 319 Why Police Did Not Historically Consider Domestic Abuse “Real” Policing......Page 322 Organizational Disincentives......Page 324 Are Domestic Violence Calls Extraordinarily Dangerous to the Police?......Page 325 Structural Impediments to Police Action......Page 327 The Classical Bias Against Arrest......Page 329 Prosecutorial Screening Prior to Adjudication......Page 331 Traditional Patterns of Nonintervention by Prosecutors......Page 332 Prosecutorial Autonomy......Page 334 The Reality of Budgetary Pressures......Page 335 Prioritizing Prosecutorial Efforts to Targeted Offenses......Page 336 The Impact of These Constraints on the Prosecutorial Response......Page 337 Unique Factors Limiting Prosecutorial Effectiveness......Page 338 Screening as a Result of Organizational Incentives......Page 339 Case Attrition by Victims: Self-Doubts and the Complexity of Motivation......Page 341 Victim Costs in Prosecution......Page 345 The Impact of Victim-Initiated Attrition......Page 348 A Judicial Annoyance: Handling Battling Families......Page 349 Case Disposition by the Judiciary......Page 352 The Decision to Access Victim Services......Page 357 Summary......Page 360 Discussion Questions......Page 361 Chapter Overview......Page 362 Political Pressure......Page 364 The Role of Research in Promoting Change......Page 372 Early Research......Page 373 The Evolution of Research Supporting the Primacy of Arrest......Page 375 Deterrence as a Rationale for Police Acton......Page 377 The Minneapolis Domestic Violence Experiment......Page 380 Methodological Concerns of the MDVE......Page 381 The Impact of the MDVE......Page 383 Deterrence Theory and the MDVE......Page 386 The Replication Studies......Page 387 Omaha, Nebraska......Page 388 Milwaukee, Wisconsin......Page 389 Charlotte, North Carolina......Page 392 Colorado Springs, Colorado......Page 393 Miami, Florida......Page 394 A New Analysis of the Data......Page 395 The Reaction to the Replication Studies......Page 397 Legal Liability as an Agent for Change......Page 401 Discussion Questions......Page 405 Chapter Overview......Page 407 How Do Police Decide Whether to Arrest?......Page 409 Discretion to Arrest in Domestic Violence Cases......Page 411 Key Situational and Incident Characteristics......Page 416 Offender Absence When Police Arrive......Page 417 Characterization of a Crime as a Misdemeanor or a Felony......Page 419 Who Called the Police?......Page 420 Presence of Weapons......Page 423 Incident Injuries......Page 424 Presence of Children......Page 425 Existence of a Formal Marital Relationship......Page 426 Perceived Mitigating Circumstances......Page 427 Victim-Specific Variables in the Arrest Decision......Page 428 Victim Preferences......Page 429 Victim Behavior and Demeanor......Page 430 Victim Lifestyle......Page 432 Police Perception of Violence as Part of Victim’s Lifestyle......Page 433 Sex of the Victim and Offender: A Changing Story?......Page 436 Increased Female Arrests......Page 439 Criminal History......Page 442 Offender Behavior and Demeanor......Page 443 Variations Within Police Departments......Page 447 Gender Differences......Page 448 Officer Age and Arrest......Page 449 Officer Race......Page 450 Organizational Priorities......Page 451 Community Characteristics......Page 452 Urban–Rural Variations......Page 454 The Controversy Over Mandatory Arrest......Page 456 Advantages for Victims......Page 457 Societal Reasons Favoring Mandatory Arrest Practices......Page 459 Controversies Regarding Mandatory Arrest......Page 461 Have Increased Arrests Suppressed Domestic Violence?......Page 462 The Costs and Unintended Consequences of Arrest......Page 465 The “Widening Net” of Domestic Violence Arrest Practices......Page 466 Unanticipated Costs of Arrest to the Victim......Page 470 Arrests and Minority Populations: A Special Case?......Page 473 The Role of Victim Satisfaction in Reporting Revictimization......Page 476 The Increase in Dual Arrests......Page 479 The Violent Family and Dual Arrests......Page 480 Is a Uniform Arrest Policy Justified in the Context of Victim Needs?......Page 482 Victim Preferences......Page 483 Does Failure to Follow Victim Arrest Preferences Deter Future Reporting?......Page 488 The Limitations of Police Arrests in Response to Stalking......Page 490 Summary......Page 491 Discussion Questions......Page 493 Chapter Overview......Page 494 The Varied Reasons for Case Attrition......Page 496 Case Attrition by Victims......Page 497 Self-Doubts and the Complexity of Motivation: Changes in Victim Attitudes During the Life Course of a Violent Relationship......Page 500 Traditional Agency Attitudes Toward Prosecution and Case Screening......Page 505 The Role of Victim Behavior and Motivation in the Decision to Prosecute......Page 508 Prosecutorial Assessment of Offender Likely to Recidivate......Page 510 Organizational Factors Within Prosecutor’s Offices That Affect Prosecution Decisions......Page 511 Imposing Procedural Barriers: Why the System Encouraged Victims to Abandon Prosecution......Page 512 How Did Prosecutor Offices Initially Respond to New Pro-Arrest Policies?......Page 514 The Changing Prosecutorial Response......Page 517 Have Prosecution Rates Actually Increased?......Page 518 Victim Advocates......Page 522 Potential Limits of Victim Advocates......Page 526 The Impact of No-Drop Policies......Page 528 Description of No-Drop Policies......Page 530 Current Use of No-Drop Policies......Page 532 Rationale for a No-Drop Policy......Page 534 Protection of Children as a Rationale for No-Drop Policies......Page 537 Evidence That No-Drop Policies Might Be Effective......Page 538 Limitations of No-Drop Policies......Page 540 Can No-Drop Policies Be Justified Based on Superior Results?......Page 547 Does a No-Drop Policy Disempower Victims?......Page 551 Victims Charged With Child Endangerment......Page 556 The Likelihood of Conviction......Page 559 Are There Effective Alternatives to Mandatory Prosecution?......Page 560 Summary......Page 565 Discussion Questions......Page 566 Chapter Overview......Page 567 The Role of Domestic Violence Restraining Orders......Page 569 The Process of Obtaining Protective Orders......Page 571 The Explosive Growth of Restraining Orders......Page 573 The Early Use of Restraining Orders: The Massachusetts Experience......Page 576 Potential Advantages of Protective Orders......Page 578 Why Protective Orders Are Not Always Granted......Page 583 Are Restraining Orders Denied to Many Groups of Domestic Violence Victims?......Page 586 The Limitations of Protective Orders......Page 591 Should Violations of Restraining Orders Be Judged by Criminal Courts?......Page 592 The California Case......Page 594 North Carolina......Page 598 When Will Women Use Restraining Orders?......Page 600 Are Restraining Orders Effective?......Page 601 Can Restraining Orders Be Misused?......Page 604 The Complex Problem of Restraining Order Violation......Page 607 Judicial Enforcement of Restraining Orders in the Face of Police Misconduct......Page 612 Enforcement of Restraining Orders After Gonzales......Page 617 Is There a Best Practice for Obtaining and Enforcing Restraining Orders?......Page 620 More Potential Enhancements to Restraining Orders......Page 621 Summary......Page 623 Discussion Questions......Page 624 Chapter Overview......Page 625 The Process of Measuring Judicial Change......Page 628 The Judicial Role in Sentencing......Page 629 Case Disposition at Trial: Variability in Judicial Sentencing Patterns......Page 632 Why Does Such Variation Exist?......Page 635 Sentencing Patterns for Domestic Compared With Non–Domestic Violence Offenders......Page 637 Domestic Violence Courts: The Focus on Victim Needs and Offender Accountability......Page 642 The Variety of Domestic Violence Courts......Page 651 Types of Domestic Violence Courts......Page 652 The Structure and Content of Domestic Violence Courts......Page 653 The Goals of Domestic Violence Courts......Page 659 What Factors Contribute to a Successful Domestic Violence Court?......Page 661 Domestic Violence Courts: A Long-Term Solution?......Page 674 Can a Family Court Be Effective as a Domestic Violence Court?......Page 676 Innovations in New York State......Page 681 Implications of the New York State Innovations......Page 685 Integrated Domestic Violence Courts and Their Impact on Convictions......Page 690 Discussion Questions......Page 693 PART III. The Societal Response......Page 695 Chapter Overview......Page 696 Early Changes in Laws......Page 698 More Recent Statutory Amendments......Page 703 Statutes and Policies Mandating or Preferring Arrest......Page 712 Rationale for Mandating Police Arrest......Page 713 Variations in Police Use of Mandatory Arrest......Page 715 State Anti-Stalking and Cyberstalking Legislation......Page 718 Initial Statutes......Page 719 The Model Code Provisions and the Second Wave of Anti-Stalking Statutes......Page 722 Recent Trends in Stalking Laws......Page 725 Are Anti-Stalking Statutes Constitutional?......Page 728 Gaps in Current Laws......Page 730 The Federal Legislative Response......Page 732 Initial Efforts......Page 733 The Violence Against Women Act of 1994......Page 735 The VAWA Reauthorization Act of 2000......Page 739 The VAWA Reauthorization Act of 2005......Page 741 The VAWA Reauthorization Act of 2013......Page 743 Federal Efforts to Combat Stalking......Page 747 The Affordable Care Act......Page 749 Future Legislation......Page 751 International Legal Reform and Human Rights......Page 752 The Context for a Broader Response to Woman Abuse......Page 754 Coercive Control in Europe......Page 755 Broadening the Application of Human Rights Doctrine......Page 758 Local Activism: Opuz v. Turkey......Page 761 Addressing the Normative Gap......Page 767 Turkey: An Example of Trickle-Down Reform......Page 769 Reform in the UK: England and Wales......Page 771 Do Organizational Policies Mediate the Impact of Mandatory and Presumptive Arrest Statutes?......Page 776 Impact of Policies......Page 780 The Importance of Training......Page 782 Current Training......Page 786 Discussion Questions......Page 789 Chapter Overview......Page 792 Restorative Justice Approaches......Page 794 Domestic Violence Mediation Programs......Page 797 Advantages of Mediation......Page 800 Does Mediation Actually Reduce Violence?......Page 802 Limits of Mediation......Page 804 When and How Should Pretrial Mediation Occur?......Page 810 Family Group Conferencing and Peacemaking Circles......Page 815 Batterer Intervention Programs......Page 820 The Role of Batterer Intervention Programs in a Divergent Offender Group......Page 821 Program Characteristics......Page 823 Alternatives to the Duluth Model......Page 827 Advantages of Batterer Intervention Programs......Page 834 Do Batterer Intervention Programs Work?......Page 836 Program Completion as a Marker for Successful Outcomes......Page 838 When Should Batterer Intervention Programs Be Used?......Page 844 Summary......Page 848 Discussion Questions......Page 849 Chapter Overview......Page 850 The Role of Health Services......Page 851 The Need for and Use of Health Services by Battered Women......Page 857 The Significance of Abuse for Female Trauma......Page 858 The Minor Nature of the Injuries Caused by Abuse......Page 860 The Markers of Partner Violence in the Health System......Page 862 The Frequency of Abusive Assaults......Page 864 The Sexual Nature of Partner Violence and Coercion......Page 866 The Continuum of Sexual Coercion......Page 869 The Secondary Consequences of Abuse......Page 872 Medical Problems......Page 873 Behavioral Problems......Page 874 Mental Health Problems......Page 876 Battered Woman Syndrome......Page 877 Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder......Page 878 Explaining the Secondary Health Problems Associated With Partner Abuse......Page 879 Populations at Special Risk......Page 882 Pregnant Women and Reproductive Coercion......Page 883 Women With Disabilities......Page 885 Defining Woman Battering in the Health Setting......Page 888 Measuring Partner Abuse: Prevalence and Incidence......Page 890 Medical Neglect......Page 892 Reforming the Health System......Page 894 The Major Challenges Ahead: Screening and Clinical Violence Intervention......Page 903 Barriers to Identification......Page 904 Screening......Page 906 Mandatory Reporting......Page 912 Clinical Violence Intervention......Page 913 Summary......Page 916 Discussion Questions......Page 918 Chapter Overview......Page 919 What About the Children?......Page 922 Domestic Violence and Children’s Well-Being......Page 928 Child Abuse......Page 929 Child Sexual Abuse......Page 931 Witnessing......Page 932 Developmental Age: Special Risks to Infants and Preschool Children......Page 935 Adverse Childhood Experiences: Domestic Violence and the Developing Brain......Page 938 Separation......Page 942 Diminished Capacity for Caretaking......Page 943 Changes in Parenting......Page 944 Mothering Through Domestic Violence......Page 945 Perpetrator’s Use of the Child as a Tool......Page 946 Modeling......Page 947 The Limits of the Research and Future Direction......Page 950 Putting Exposure in Context......Page 952 The Child Welfare System......Page 954 The Family Court Response......Page 960 Domestic Violence in Custody Cases......Page 961 The Significance of Custody Decisions for Victims and Children......Page 964 The Family Court Response......Page 967 The Three Planet Model......Page 970 The Battered Mother’s Dilemma......Page 971 The Future of Child Welfare and the Family Court Response......Page 973 Summary......Page 976 Discussion Questions......Page 977 Chapter 15 Conclusion: Toward the Prevention of Domestic Violence: Challenges and Opportunities......Page 979 The Problem of High-Risk Offenders......Page 982 The Use of Risk-Assessment Tools......Page 985 Risk Factors for Intimate Partner Homicide......Page 986 Using Risk Factors to Target Recurrent Domestic Violence......Page 988 Are Several Risk Profiles Needed?......Page 990 Implementing Risk Reduction Strategies......Page 994 References......Page 997 Index......Page 1144 About the Authors......Page 1195