Functional anatomy and physiology of domestic animals

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Cover Functional Anatomy and Physiology of Domestic Animals Contents Contributors Preface Acknowledgments About the Companion Website 1 Basics of Structure and Function The Cell, Its Structure and Functions The Organelles Energy Production Functions of DNA and RNA DNA and Its Replication Mitosis RNA and Protein Synthesis Embryology Tissues Epithelium Connective Tissue Directional Terms and Planes Body Cavities Thoracic Cavity The Abdominopelvic Cavity The Peritoneum SUGGESTED READING 2 Body Water: Properties and Functions Physicochemical Properties of Solutions Diffusion Osmosis and Osmotic Pressure Tone of Solutions Interconversion of Units of Measurement Distribution of Body Water Total Body Water and Fluid Compartments Intracellular and Extracellular Fluid Water Movement between Fluid Compartments Water Balance Water Gain Water Loss Water Requirements Dehydration, Thirst, and Water Intake Dehydration Stimulus for Thirst Relief of Thirst Adaptation to Water Lack Camels Sheep and Donkeys SUGGESTED READING 3 Blood and Its Functions General Characteristics Hematocrit Blood Color Blood Volume Blood pH Leukocytes Classification and Appearance Lifespan and Numbers Function Diagnostic Procedures Erythrocytes Hemoglobin and Its Forms Erythropoiesis Numbers Shape Size Erythrocyte Indices Lifespan Fate of Erythrocytes Iron Metabolism Anemia and Polycythemia Hemostasis: Prevention of Blood Loss Hemostatic Components Proteins Vascular Endothelium Platelets Clot Formation (Blood Coagulation) Fibrin Degradation Prevention of Blood Coagulation Prevention in normal circulation Prevention in Withdrawn Blood Tests for Blood Coagulation Coagulation Defects Species Differences Plasma and Its Composition Plasma Proteins Other Plasma Constituents SUGGESTED READING 4 Nervous System Structure of the Nervous System Neurons and Synapses Glial Cells Myelin Sheaths Organization of the Nervous System Central Nervous System Peripheral Nervous System Autonomic Nervous System Neurotransmitters The Nerve Impulse and Its Transmission Mechanisms of Transmission Action Potential Saltatory Conduction Neuron Placement Reflexes Spinal Reflex Somatic and Visceral Reflexes Reflex Centers Postural Reflexes and Reactions The Meninges and Cerebrospinal Fluid Meninges of the Brain Meninges of the Spinal Cord Ventricles of the Brain Circulation and Function of Cerebrospinal Fluid Central Nervous System Metabolism Blood–Brain Barrier Blood Requirement SUGGESTED READING 5 The Sensory Organs Classification of Sensory Receptors Sensory Receptor Responses Graded Responses Adaptation Pain Visceral Pain Referred Pain Taste Taste Reception Taste Sensations Temperature and Taste Depraved Appetite Smell Olfactory Region Structure Odor Perception Pheromones Hearing and Equilibrium External Ear Middle Ear Inner Ear Vestibular Structure and Function Cochlear Structure and Function Summary of Sound Reception Vision Structure and Functions of the Eye Chemistry of Vision Adaptation to Varying Light Field of Vision Eyeball Movements and Accessory Structures SUGGESTED READING 6 Endocrine System Hormones Modes of Transmission Biochemistry Pituitary Gland Anterior Pituitary Anterior Pituitary Hormones Posterior Pituitary and Its Hormones Thyroid Gland Thyroid Hormones Parathyroid Glands Parathyroid Hormone and Calcium Ion Regulation Adrenal Glands Hormones of the Adrenal Cortex Glucocorticoid Functions and Regulations Mineralocorticoid Functions and Regulation Hormones of the Adrenal Medulla Pancreatic Gland Hormones of the Pancreas Control of Insulin and Glucagon Secretion Prostaglandins and Their Functions SUGGESTED READING 7 Bones, Joints, and Synovial Fluid General Features of the Skeleton The Axial Skeleton The Appendicular Skeleton Bone Structure Composition of Bone Haversian Systems Cells of Bone Bone Formation Growth of Long Bones Bone Remodeling Bone Repair Joints and Synovial Fluid Blood, Lymph, and Nerve Supply of Joints Synovial Membrane Articular Cartilage Lubrication of Synovial Joints SUGGESTED READING 8 Muscle Classification Smooth Muscle Cardiac Muscle Skeletal Muscle Arrangement Skeletal-Muscle Harnessing Microstructure of Skeletal Muscle Muscle-Fiber Division Sarcotubular System Neuromuscular Junction Skeletal-Muscle Contraction Depolarization of Muscle Fibers Contraction Process Energy Changes Contraction versus Contracture Contraction Strength Comparison of Contraction among Muscle Types Changes in Muscle Size Hypertrophy and Hyperplasia Atrophy SUGGESTED READING 9 The Cardiovascular System Heart and Pericardium Myocardium Heart Valves Blood Flow through the Heart Blood Vessels Blood Circulatory Systems Lymphatic System Spleen Cardiac Contractility Origin of the Heartbeat Conduction of the Impulse Cardiac Cycle Electrocardiogram Wave Forms Isoelectric Line Heart Sounds Heart Rate and Its Control Metabolic Rate Autonomic Nervous System Autoregulation Reflexes Blood Pressure Pressure Generation and Flow Systolic and Diastolic Pressures Measurements Blood Flow Autoregulation Cardiac Output and Blood Diversion Breathing and Blood Flow Circulation Time Capillary Dynamics Diffusion and Bulk Flow Mechanism of Bulk Flow Capillary Imbalances SUGGESTED READING 10 The Respiratory System Respiratory Apparatus Airways to the Lungs Pulmonary Alveoli The Lungs and Pleura Factors Associated with Breathing Respiratory Cycles Types of Breathing States of Breathing Respiratory Frequency Lung Sounds Pulmonary Volumes and Capacities Respiratory Pressures Partial Pressure Arterial and Venous Blood Partial Pressure Atmospheric Air versus Alveolar Air Pulmonary Ventilation Dead Space Ventilation Pressures That Accomplish Ventilation Pneumothorax Mediastinal Pressure Diffusion of Respiratory Gases Oxygen Transport Transport Scheme Oxygen–Hemoglobin Dissociation Curve Carbon Dioxide Transport Hydration Reaction Carbamino Compounds Loss of Carbon Dioxide at the Alveolus Regulation of Ventilation Neural Control Humoral Control Respiratory Clearance Physical Forces of Deposition Upper Respiratory Tract Clearance Alveolar Clearance Nonrespiratory Functions of the Respiratory System Panting Purring Pathophysiology Terminology Avian Respiration General Scheme of Avian Respiratory Morphology Mechanics of Respiration and Air Circulation General Considerations SUGGESTED READING 11 The Urinary System Gross Anatomy of the Kidneys and Urinary Bladder The Nephron Nephron Components Formation of Urine Distribution of Blood at the Glomerulus Glomerular Filtration Dynamics of Filtration Filtration Factors Autoregulation Tubular Reabsorption and Secretion Reabsorption of Na+, Cl–, Glucose, and Amino Acids Reabsorption of Water and Urea Secretion of H+, K+, NH3, and Organic Molecules Transport Maximum Countercurrent Mechanism Countercurrent Multiplier System Countercurrent Exchanger System Role of Urea Concentration of Urine Antidiuretic Hormone and Osmoregulation Concentration Failure Extracellular Fluid Volume Regulation Aldosterone Other Hormones with Kidney Association Parathyroid Hormone Erythropoietin Prostaglandins Micturition Transfer of Urine to the Urinary Bladder Micturition Reflexes Descriptive Terms Characteristics of Mammalian Urine Renal Clearance Creatinine Clearance Application Maintenance of Acid–Base Balance Acids and Bases Relationship of pH to H+ Concentration Chemical Buffer Systems Mechanism of H+ Secretion by the Kidneys Role of Respiratory System Avian Urinary System Anatomic Features Renal Portal System Uric Acid Formation and Excretion Concentration of Avian Urine Modification of Ureteral Urine Urine Characteristics and Flow SUGGESTED READING 12 Digestion and Absorption Introductory Considerations The Oral Cavity and Pharynx Teeth Tongue Pharynx The Simple Stomach Esophagus Stomach Intestines Small Intestine Large Intestine Accessory Organs Composition of Foodstuffs Carbohydrates Proteins Lipids Accessory Foods Pregastric Mechanical Functions Prehension Mastication Deglutition Gastrointestinal Motility Segmentation and Peristalsis Mechanical Functions of the Stomach and Small Intestine Delay of Gastric Emptying Emesis Mechanical Functions of the Small Intestine Mechanical Functions of the Large Intestine Defecation Intestinal Transport of Electrolytes and Water Digestive Secretions Saliva Gastric Secretions Pancreatic Secretions Biliary Secretions Digestion and Absorption Carbohydrates Proteins Fats Microbial Digestion in the Large Intestine The Ruminant Stomach Structure and Function Characteristics of Ruminant Digestion Rumination Gas Production and Eructation Chemistry and Microbiology of the Rumen Ruminant Metabolism Gluconeogenesis Energy Production Ruminant Ketosis and Bloat Avian Digestion The Digestive Tract SUGGESTED READING 13 Body Heat and Temperature Regulation Body Temperature Gradients of Temperature Diurnal Temperature Physiologic Responses to Heat Circulatory Adjustments Evaporative Heat Loss Responses to Extremes of Heat Physiologic Responses to Cold Reduction of Heat Loss Increase in Heat Production Hibernation Awakening from Hibernation Brown Fat versus White Fat Hypothermia and Hyperthermia Hypothermia Fever Heat Stroke and Impaired Evaporation SUGGESTED READING 14 Male Reproduction Testes and Associated Structures Epididymis Ductus Deferens Scrotum Descent of the Testes Accessory Sex Glands and Semen Penis and Prepuce Muscles of Male Genitalia Blood and Nerve Supply Spermatogenesis Epididymal Transport Spermatogenic Wave Hormonal Control Other Functions of Testosterone Erection Mounting and Intromission Emission and Ejaculation Factors Affecting Testicular Function Reproduction in the Avian Male SUGGESTED READING 15 Female Reproduction Functional Anatomy of the Female Reproductive System Ovaries Ovarian Follicles Tubular Genital Tract External Genitalia Blood Supply of Female Genitalia Hormones of Female Reproduction Estrogens Progesterone Gonadotropins Ovarian Follicle Activity Follicular Growth Ovulation Corpus Luteum Formation and Regression Summary of Ovarian Cycle Events Sexual Receptivity Estrous Cycle and Related Factors Stages of Estrous Cycle Photoperiod Nutrition Species Characteristics Ewe Pregnancy Transport of Oocyte and Spermatozoa Fertilization Implantation and Placentation Hormones Diagnosis Parturition Signs of Approaching Parturition Hormone Changes Stages Involution of the Uterus Cow Mare, Ewe, and Sow Bitch Reproduction in the Avian Female SUGGESTED READING 16 Lactation Functional Anatomy of Female Mammary Glands Mammary Gland of Cows Mammary Glands of Other Animals Mammogenesis Development in Cattle Development in Other Animals Lactogenesis and Lactation Hormones and Their Interactions Hormonal Maintenance of Lactation Composition of Milk Proteins Carbohydrates Lipids Minerals Vitamins Other Substances Species Variation in Composition Colostrum Milk Removal and Other Considerations Milking Interval Regression of the Mammary Gland SUGGESTED READING Appendix A Normal Blood Values Reference Intervals for Common Domestic Species: Blood Gas and Hematology References and Resources Appendix B Answers to Self Evaluation Index EULA