Research in Education and Psychology

Description

Cover Contents Preface Part I: Introduction to Educational and Psychological Research Chapter 1: Introduction to Research Meaning of Research Concept and Definition of Research Nature and General Characteristics of Research Main Characteristics of Research Meaning and Concept of Educational Research Definitions of Educational Research Aims of Educational Research Broad Approaches of Research Qualitative Research Characteristics Purposes Practical Uses Types Difficulties Quantitative Research Characteristics Purposes Types Pre-requisites for Research Curiosity Sensitivity Desire to Improve the Existing Situation Belief That Change Can Be Brought About Preparedness to Accept the Responsibility of Bringing About a Change Belief in the Scientific Way of Problem Solving Facilitative Climate Forms of Educational Research Fundamental Research Applied Research Action Research Meaning and Concept of Action Research The Present Shift IASEs and CTEs Main Features Difference Between Action Research and Pure Research Advantages of Action Research Areas of Action Research Concrete Problems of Action Research Illustrative Example of Action Research Plan Identification of the Problem Defining and Delimiting the Problem Analysing the Causes of the Problem Formulation of Action Hypothesis Design for Testing the Action Hypothesis Evaluation of the Action Programme Follow-up and Communication of the Findings to Others Difference Between Action Research and Fundamental Research Need and Importance of Research in Education Need Importance Role and Significance of Research in Education Scientific Method Summary Key Words References Additional Readings Chapter 2: Selecting Research Problems Identification of Research Problems Selection of a Problem Sources of Problems National Policies Field of One’s Work Societal Needs National Priorities Literature Criteria for Selection of a Problem Defining a Problem Sources of Data and Methods Evaluation of the Problem Areas of Educational Research Priority Areas of Educational Research in India Major Areas in Educational Research Thrust Areas in Educational Research Suggestive List of Research Problems Problems General Research Problems in Education List of Research Problems Summary Key Words References Additional Readings Chapter 3: Preparing a Research Proposal Formulation of a Research Problem Characteristics of a Good Research Problem Precision Focused Scope Critical Thrust Areas Access of Data Utilizing Expertise of the Research Scholar Completion Within Reasonable Time Limits No Duplication Not Exploring the Obvious Not Creating a Sensation Not Against Ethical Norms Format of the Research Proposal Individual Research Proposal Institutional Project Formulation Illustrative Research Proposals Individual Research Proposal–1 Individual Research Proposal–2 Individual Research Proposal–3 Institutional Individual Research Proposal–4 Summary Key Words References Additional Readings Chapter 4: Review of Related Literature Meaning of Related Literature Importance of Related Literature Identification of Related Literature Need for Review of Related Literature Review of Related Literature Principle of Review of Related Literature Sources of Related Literature Sources for Survey of Related Literature Use of Library Some Important Reference Materials Sources of Information Card Catalogue in the Library Library Classification Systems Dictionaries Yearbooks, Almanacs and Handbooks Directories and Bibliographies The Index Research Periodicals Abstracts Theses and Dissertations Newspapers and Pamphlets Government Documents Monographs Computer-generated Reference Materials Summary Key Words References Additional Readings Chapter 5: Research Process Paradigm of Research Process Identification and Definition of a Problem Selection of Area Defining the Problem Statement of the Problem Example Operational Definitions Evaluation of the Problem Survey of Relevant Information Reference Books Encyclopaedias Dictionaries Yearbooks and Handbooks Directories and Bibliographies Index Research Periodicals and Journals Abstracts Theses and Dissertations Formulation of Hypotheses Meaning and Concept of Hypothesis Importance of Hypotheses Construction of Hypotheses Sources of Hypotheses Example Qualities of a Hypothesis Importance of Hypotheses Types of Hypotheses Directional Hypothesis Non-directional Hypothesis Forms of Hypotheses Question Form Research Hypothesis and Null Hypothesis Directional and Non-directional Hypotheses Necessity of Null Hypothesis Criteria for Judging the Value of a Hypothesis Criteria for a Good Hypothesis Testing of Hypotheses Collection of Data Analysis of Data Organization Analysis Interpretation Conclusion Summary Key Words References Additional Readings Chapter 6: Sampling Purpose of Sampling Technique Meaning and Concept of Sampling Sampling Theory Bases of Sampling Need for Sampling Characteristics of a Good Sample Uses of Sampling Steps in a Sampling Procedure Advantages of Sampling Disadvantages of Sampling Important Concepts Related to Sampling Sample Population Statistics and Parameter Census Sampling Frame Example Sampling Error Advantages of Sampling over Complete Census Reduced Cost Less Time-consuming Greater Speed Greater Accuracy Types of Sampling Probability Sampling Non-probability Sampling Probability Sampling Simple Random Sampling Example Systematic Sampling Example Stratified Random Sampling Cluster Sampling Example Cluster Versus Stratum Multistage Sampling Sequential Sampling Multiphase Sampling Non-probability Sampling Procedures Convenience Sampling Purposive Sampling Quota Sampling Example Distinction Between Probability and Non-probability Sampling Sample Size Calculating Sample Size Summary Key Words References Additional Readings Chapter 7: Research Methods General Methodology Classification The Historical Method Nature of Historical Research Value of Historical Research Types of Historical Research Legal Research Studying the History of Ideas Studying the History of Institutions and Organizations Bibliographic Research Steps of Historical Research Step 1: Selection of the Problem Step 2: Formulation of Hypotheses Step 3: Collection of Data Primary Sources Secondary Sources Step 4: Criticism of Data External Criticism Internal Criticism Step 5: Interpretation of Data and Reporting of Findings Descriptive Research Meaning of Descriptive Research Value of Descriptive Research in Education Steps in Descriptive Research Purpose of Descriptive Research Features of Descriptive Research Significance of Descriptive Research Types of Descriptive Research Survey-type Research Interrelationship Studies Causal-comparative Studies Correlational Studies Developmental Studies Growth Studies Trend Studies Clinical Research and Case Studies Clinical Research Advice, Enlightenment and Suggestion Psychoanalysis Genetic or Developmental Studies Value of Genetic Studies Types of Genetic Studies Longitudinal Studies Cross-sectional Studies The Experimental Method Nature of Experimental Research Features of Experimental Research Control Methods for Controlling Inter-subject Differences Methods for Controlling Situational Variables Manipulation Observation Replication Value of Experimental Research in Education Steps in Experimental Research Experimental Designs Criteria for Experimental Design Appropriateness Adequacy of Control Validity Types of Validity Types of Experimental Designs One-group Experimentation Parallel or Equivalent Group Experimentation Rotation Group Experimentation Simple Factorial Design of 2 by 2 (2 × 2) Summary Key Words References Additional Readings Chapter 8: Qualitative Research Concept of Qualitative Research Meaning and Definition of Qualitative Research Difference Between Quantitative and Qualitative Research Features of Qualitative Research Themes of Qualitative Research Strategies or Techniques of Qualitative Research Document or Content Analysis Case Study Ethnographic Studies Data Collection Techniques in Qualitative Research Interview Participant Observation Data Analysis in Qualitative Research Organization of Data Description of Data Interpretation of Data Forms of Results Summary Key Words References Additional Readings Chapter 9: Tools and Techniques of Research Data Collection and Tools Types of Research Tools Psychological Tests Classification of Psychological Tests Qualities of a Good Test Tools Used in Quantitative Research Questionnaire Definitions of Questionnaire Types of Questionnaire Designing a Questionnaire Merits of Questionnaire Method Demerits of a Questionnaire Construction of a Questionnaire Use of Questionnaire Administration of Questionnaire Tools Used in Qualitative Research Interview Definitions of Interview Types of Interviews Process of Interview Advantages of an Interview Disadvantages of an Interview Some Tips for Holding Successful Interviews (Practical Guidelines) Observation Meaning and Definition of Observation Process of Observation Method Types of Observations Shortcomings of Observation Opinionnaire Attitude Scale Likert Scale Thurstone-type Attitude Scales Limitations of Attitude Scales Checklist Rating Scale Construction and Use of Rating Scales Arranging the Rating Scale Difficulties in Constructing and Using Rating Scales Data Schedule/Information Bank Meaning and Definitions of Psychological Test Characteristics of a Good Psychological Test Uses of Psychological Tests Purposes of Psychological Tests Classification of Psychological Tests Sociometry Computer as a Tool of Research Data Organization and Coding Storing the Data in the Computer Selection of Appropriate Statistical Techniques and Package Exception of Programmes Audio Tapes Video Tapes Photographs Artefacts Diagrams Drawings and Paintings Cognitive Maps Summary Key Words References Additional Readings Chapter 10: Construction and Procedure of Research Tools Planning the Construction of Tools Steps of Planning Identifying Learning Outcomes Defining Objectives in Specific Terms Outlining Subject Matter Content Preparing a Table of Specifications Using Table of Specifications Preparing the Test Rules of Constructing Multiple-choice Items Item Analysis Validity Norms Characteristics of Standardized Tests Tools of Research Questionnaire Construction of Questionnaire Format of Questions Validity of Questionnaires Reliability of Questionnaires Checklist for Evaluating Questionnaires Type of Information Gathered Through Questionnaires Questionnaire Layout Interview Method Interview as a Tool Participants in Interview Situations Functions of Interviews Preparation for Interview in Research Execution of an Interview Recording and Reporting of Responses Schedule Method Rating Scale Construction of Rating Scales General Rules Types of Rating Scales Descriptive Rating Percentage of Group Scales Numerical Scales Graphic Scales Standard Scales Example Rating by Cumulated Points Forced-choice Ratings Advantages of Rating Scales Limitations of Rating Scales Error of Leniency Halo Error Error of Central Tendency Logical Error Contrast Error Achievement Test Old Concept of Evaluation Demerits of Traditional Examinations Unreliability Validity The New Concept Attainment Test Evaluating Test Standardized Test Characteristics of Standardized Test Nature of Achievement Tests Essay-type Questions Versus Objective Questions Uses of Achievement Tests Construction of Achievement Tests Difficulty Value Internal Consistency Item Selection for Final Draft Final Form of Test Reliability and Validity of Achievement Test Checklist Construction of Checklist Inventories Evaluation of Personality Inventory Summary Key Words References Additional Readings Chapter 11: New Approaches to Educational Research Heuristic Research Phenomenological Research Differences Between Phenomenological Research and Heuristic Research Interdisciplinary Research Ethnographical Studies Policy Research Intervention Studies Baseline Studies Summary Key Words References Additional Readings Chapter 12: Research Report Meaning of Research Report Steps of Writing a Research Report Preliminary Section Main Body of Research Report Introduction Development of Tools Method and Procedure Analysis and Interpretation of Data Summary and Conclusion Reference Section Style and Format of Writing Research Report Typing of Research Report General Rules for Typing a Research Report Rules for Typing Different Sections of a Research Report Preparing the Preliminary Section Typing of Main Body of the Research Report Proofreading of Final Draft of Research Report Binding and Submission of Research Report Evaluation of Research Report Brief Summary of Research Report Format Executive Summary Style and Language Mechanics Summary Key Words References Additional Readings Part II: Data Analysis Chapter 13: Descriptive Data Analysis Statistical Analysis Measures of Central Tendency Characteristics of Average Arithmetic Mean Calculation of Mean by Short Method Median Calculation of Median in a Grouped Data Mode Measures of Variability Range Quartile Deviation Mean Deviation Mean Deviation of Grouped Data Standard Deviation (SD) Calculation of SD from Ungrouped Data Calculation of SD from Grouped Data Calculation of SD by Short Method Graphical Representation of Data Histogram Frequency Polygon Smoothing Frequency Polygon Cumulative Frequency Curve or Ogive Normal Distribution Normal Probability Curve (NPC) Characteristics of Normal Probability Curve Normal Probability Curve Table Applications of NPC Measures of Relationship Correlation Between Paired Observation Biserial Correlation Situation in Which it Is Used Computation of Biserial r Characteristics of rbis Point Biserial r (rpbs) Situation in Which It Is Used Computation of Point Biserial r Tetrachoric Correlation (r) Situation in Which It Is Used Computation Characteristics Sheppard’s Coefficient of Correlation (S) Yule’s Coefficient of Association (Q) Phi Coefficient Situation in Which It Is Used Characteristics Contingency Coefficient of Correlation (C) Characteristics Yule’s Coefficient of Colligation (w) Correlation Ratio (h, eta) Partial Correlation (r123) Situation in Which It Is Used Computation Characteristics Multiple Correlation (R) Situation in Which It Is Used Characteristics Factor Analysis Meaning and Definition of Factor Analysis Methods of Factor Analysis Centroid Method of Factor Analysis of L. L. Thurstone Preliminary Concept of Factor Analysis Factor Matrix Correlation Matrix Problem of Rotation Extraction of Centroid Factor Naming of the Extracted Factors Some Facts About Factor Analysis Recent Trends in Factor Analysis Methods Methodological Development External Criticism of Factor Methods List of Factorial Studies Evaluation of Factor Analytical Approach Summary Key Words References Additional Readings Chapter 14: Inferential Data Analysis Parametric Treatment of Data Inferences Regarding Means of Large Samples Confidence Intervals and Levels of Confidence Inferences Regarding Means of Small Samples Degrees of Freedom Significance of Difference Between Means Significance of Difference Between Independent Means in Large and Small Samples Large Samples Levels of Significance Two-tailed and One-tailed Tests of Significance Significance of Difference Between Dependent Means in Large and Small Samples Analysis of Variance Assumptions of Analysis of Variance Analysis of Variance for a Randomized Group Design (One-Way Analysis of Variance) Analysis of Variance for Factorial Design (Three-way Analysis of Variance) Assumption of Homogeneity of Variance Main Effects for B and C Main Effect for A Triple Interaction A × B × C Basic Assumptions of Analysis of Co-variance Analysis of Co-variance of Data of Experimental and Control Groups Significance of Multiple Correlation Coefficient R Significance of the Difference Between Pearson’s Coefficients of Correlation Non-parametric Tests Median Test Mann–Whitney U Test Wilcoxon Matched Pairs Test Kolmogorov–Smirnov Test Correlational Analysis Regression Regression Equation Multiple Regression Partial Correlation Multiple Correlation Multiple Regression Equation Suppressor Variables Non-metric Variables Canonical Correlation Chi-square Test x2 Levels of Significance Summary Key Words References Additional Readings Chapter 15: Computer Data Analysis Data Organization in Computer System Computer Data Analysis Example 1: Descriptive Statistics—SAS: CORR Example 2: SAS—Chart Example 3: Multiple Regression—SPSS-X Example 4: Analysis of Variance—SPSS-PC+ Summary Key Words References Additional Readings Appendix A Appendix B Appendix C Appendix D Appendix E Bibliography