Solid Waste Landfilling: Concepts, Processes, Technology

Description

Solid Waste Landfilling: Concepts, Processes, Technology provides information on technologies that promote stabilization and minimize environmental impacts in landfills. As the main challenges in waste management are the reduction and proper treatment of waste and the appropriate use of waste streams, the book satisfies the needs of a modern landfill, covering waste pre-treatment, in situ treatment, long-term behavior, closure, aftercare, environmental impact and sustainability. It is written for practitioners who need specific information on landfill construction and operation, but is also ideal for those concerned about the possible return of these sites to landscapes and their subsequent uses for future generations. Includes input by international contributors from a vast number of disciplinesProvides worldwide approaches and technologiesShowcases the interdisciplinary nature of the topic Focuses on sustainability, covering the lifecycle of landfills under the concept of minimizing environmental impact Presents knowledge of the legal framework and economic aspects of landfilling 0 Front-Matter_2019_Solid-Waste-Landfilling SOLID WASTE LANDFILLING: Concepts, Processes, Technologies Copyright_2019_Solid-Waste-Landfilling Copyright List-of-Contributors_2019_Solid-Waste-Landfilling LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS Preface_2019_Solid-Waste-Landfilling PREFACE 01 1.1 1.1. WASTE MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES AND ROLE OF LANDFILLING GLOBAL POLLUTION OF THE ENVIRONMENT FATE OF CONTAMINANTS THE ROLE OF WASTE MANAGEMENT Worldwide Waste Management Strategies Waste Management in Economically Developing and Transient Countries Waste Management in Megacities ROLE OF LANDFILLING CONCLUSIONS References 1.2 1.2. WASTE INPUT TO LANDFILLS INTRODUCTION WASTE CHARACTERIZATION Physical Properties Moisture Content Density Grain Size Distribution Field Capacity Chemical and Physical-Chemical Properties Biological Properties WASTE GENERATION LANDFILL CLASSIFICATION AND WASTE CATEGORIES Municipal Solid Waste Municipal Solid Waste Incineration Residues Construction and Demolition Waste Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment End-of-Life-Vehicles Scrap Tires Tannery Sludge Asbestos FINAL REMARKS References 1.3 1.3. LEGAL FRAMEWORK OF LANDFILLING IN DIFFERENT AREAS OF THE WORLD LEGAL SOURCES LANDFILLING IN THE WASTE MANAGEMENT HIERARCHY LANDFILLS VERSUS OPEN DUMPS CLASSES OF LANDFILLS THE PERMIT OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE CLOSURE AND AFTERCARE References 2.1 2.1. MULTIBARRIER PRINCIPLES IN LANDFILLING INTRODUCTION THE MULTIBARRIER CONCEPT Mass transfer terminology Landfill mass balance Landfill barriers Waste input barrier Water input barrier Waste body barrier Biogas collection Flux through the drainage system Leachate collection Flux through the liner system Flux through the unsaturated zone Flux in the reactive aquifer DESIGN STRATEGIES AND LANDFILL CONCEPTS Attenuate and disperse landfill Containment landfill Bioreactor landfill Bioreactor landfill with mechanical and biological pretreatment of waste Dry landfill Rock quality storage/geological repository CONCLUSIONS References 2.2 2.2. MASS BALANCE OF CONTAMINANTS: A KEY FOR MODERN LANDFILL DESIGN INTRODUCTION QUALITY OF WASTE AND MASS BALANCE IN A LANDFILL ACCUMULATION OF MASS AND EMISSION BEHAVIOR MASS BALANCE CONTROL FOR ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY ROLE OF LANDFILL AS A SINK References 3.1 3.1. BIOCHEMICAL PROCESSES IN LANDFILL INTRODUCTION Biodegradation processes Landfill microorganisms ANAEROBIC DEGRADATION Anaerobic degradation and methane production Hydrolysis Acidogenesis fermentation Acetogenesis fermentation Methanogenesis Sulfate reduction Process control parameters and nutrients Temperature Oxygen Moisture content pH Alkalinity Volatile fatty acids Ammonia–nitrogen Sulfates Nitrates Hydrogen Nutrients, micronutrients, and inhibitors Long-term fate of organics AEROBIC DEGRADATION Oxidation of carbon compounds NITROGEN BEHAVIOR Ammonification Nitrification Denitrification ANAMMOX Long-term nitrogen emissions CONCLUSIONS References 3.2 3.2. PHYSICAL/CHEMICAL REACTIONS IN LANDFILLS INTRODUCTION METALS TRACE ORGANIC CONTAMINANTS Sorption Volatilization Reductive Dehalogenation of Solvents ELEVATED TEMPERATURES IN LANDFILLS EMERGING CONTAMINANTS IN LANDFILL Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products in Landfill Leachate Fate of Fluorinated Compounds Fate of Nanoparticles Fate of Single-walled Carbon Nanotubes in Municipal Solid Waste Landfills CONCLUSIONS References 4.1 4.1. MECHANICAL BIOLOGICAL PRETREATMENT INTRODUCTION MECHANICAL BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MECHANICAL BIOLOGICAL PRETREATMENT AS PART OF WASTE MANAGEMENT CONCEPTS Mechanical Treatment Biological Pretreatment OFF-GAS TREATMENT FINAL REMARKS References Further Reading 4.2 4.2. TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL OF INCINERATION RESIDUES TYPES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF WASTE INCINERATION RESIDUES ENVIRONMENTAL PROPERTIES OF WASTE INCINERATION RESIDUES MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES FOR WASTE INCINERATION RESIDUES Strategies Adopted Before Utilization or Final Disposal Physical Separation Chemical Separation Chemical Stabilization Thermal Treatment Strategies Adopted During Landfilling and Active Landfill Operation Strategies Adopted During the Passive Phase of the Landfill OVERVIEW AND CHALLENGES References Further Reading 4.3 4.3. PHYSICAL WASTE PRETREATMENT INTRODUCTION WASTE SIZE REDUCTION BALING WASTE WASHING CONCLUSIONS References 5.1 5.1. WASTE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES INTRODUCTION The management of a landfill cell The integrity of the cap barrier The vertical expansion of a former landfill The stability of the steep slopes PHYSICAL PARAMETERS FOR A RATIONAL PHYSICO-MECHANICAL APPROACH OF WASTE Physical characterization as for soil PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WASTE MATERIALS Particles distribution Solid density Representative elementary volume Compressibility COMPRESSIBILITY OF WASTE AND GLOBAL SETTLEMENT OF A LANDFILL Landfilling sequence and settlement history Primary settlement Secondary settlement References 5.2 5.2. MECHANICAL STABILITY AT LANDFILL SCALE INTRODUCTION Monitoring of Landfill Settlement Temporary Cap Cover SHEAR STRENGTH OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE Laboratory Approach Main Devices Stress–Strain Relationship of Municipal Solid Waste and the Importance of Waste Composition Limitations of Laboratory Testing Field Approaches State of the Practice on Shear Strength of Municipal Solid Waste WASTE MASS SLOPE STABILITY Modes of Slope Stability Failure Static Slope Stability Methods and Example of Chart Seismic Slope Stability Methods Case Histories of Slope Instabilities and Lessons Learned Instabilities Under Static Conditions Instabilities Under Seismic Conditions References 6.1 6.1. LEACHATE GENERATION MODELING INTRODUCTION WATER BALANCE IN A LANDFILL Precipitation Runoff Evaporation and Evapotranspiration Water Content of Waste and Water Accumulation Capacity Water Flow and Waste Permeability HYDROLOGIC EVALUATION OF LANDFILL PERFORMANCE MODEL OTHER MODELS CONCLUSIONS References 6.2 6.2. LANDFILL HYDRAULICS INTRODUCTION BASIC HYDROGEOLOGICAL PARAMETERS FOR WASTE Hydraulic Conductivity Porosity CONCEPTUAL MODELS Saturated Flow Single-Continuum Saturated Flow Dual- or Multicontinuum Saturated Flow Unsaturated Flow Single-Continuum Unsaturated Flow Dual- or Multicontinuum Unsaturated Flow CONCLUSIONS References 7.1 7.1. PHYSICAL LANDFILL BARRIERS: PRINCIPLES AND ENGINEERING INTRODUCTION PHYSICAL BARRIER COMPONENTS MATERIALS IN PHYSICAL BARRIERS Natural Materials Synthetic Materials FUNCTIONS OF DIFFERENT COMPONENTS IN PHYSICAL BARRIERS DESIGN OF PHYSICAL BARRIERS Basal Barriers Sequencing of Barrier Components Mineral Liners Synthetic Liners Drainage and Collection Top Barriers LEGAL REQUIREMENTS FOR BASAL BARRIERS LONG-TERM PERFORMANCE AND FAILURE MECHANISMS CONCLUSIONS References 7.2 7.2. MINERAL LINERS INTRODUCTION GEOTECHNICAL PROPERTIES OF THE MINERAL LINERS LABORATORY COMPACTION TESTS ON CLAY SOILS HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY OF THE MINERAL LINERS Laboratory Permeability Tests In Situ Permeability Tests Boutwell Permeameter Test Phase 1 Phase 2 Sealed Double-Ring Infiltrometer Test Guelph Borehole Permeability Test Differences Among Testing Techniques QUALITY CONTROL DURING CONSTRUCTION TRANSPORT OF CONTAMINANTS THROUGH CLAY LINERS Diffusion Attenuation COMPATIBILITY BETWEEN CLAY LINERS AND LEACHATE CONCLUSIONS References Further Reading 7.3 7.3. POLYMERIC GEOMEMBRANE COMPONENTS IN LANDFILL LINERS INTRODUCTION TYPES OF GEOMEMBRANES AND FORMULATIONS Polyethylene Flexible Polypropylene Polyvinyl Chloride Chlorosulfonated Polyethylene Ethylene Propylene Diene Terpolymer MANUFACTURING Flat Die Extrusion Blown Film Extrusion Calendering Autoclaving Spread Coating GENERIC SPECIFICATIONS AND DELIVERY TO SITE SEAMING OR JOINING GEOMEMBRANES DESTRUCTIVE SEAM TESTING NONDESTRUCTIVE SEAM TESTING LEAK INTEGRITY SURVEY COVERING, PROTECTION, AND BACKFILLING WRINKLE MANAGEMENT LONG-TERM PERFORMANCE AND LIFETIME In-Isolation Effects Synergistic Effects References Further Reading 8.1 8.1. LEACHATE COLLECTION SYSTEMS INTRODUCTION GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN General requirements International guidelines and national legal requirements FAILURE AND CLOGGING IN LEACHATE COLLECTION DYSTEMS Introduction Mechanical damages of drainage elements Intensity of incrustation processes Causes of the incrustation process Recommendations for construction and operation of sanitary landfills HYDRAULIC CALCULATION OF DRAINAGE SYSTEMS Introduction Leachate rates at landfill bottom Basic equation for sloping drainage layers Numerical solutions Examples RECOMMENDATIONS ON DESIGN AND MATERIALS Standard design Profile and geometry Protective layer Drainage layer Drainage pipes Inspection and cleaning shafts Alternative design with secondary drains RECOMMENDATIONS ON MONITORING AND MAINTENANCE Monitoring of the leachate collection system Maintenance of the leachate collection system References 8.2 8.2. COLLECTION OF SURFACE RUNOFF AND DRAINAGE OF LANDFILL TOP COVER SYSTEMS INTRODUCTION GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN General Requirements Legal Requirements PREVENTION OF ACCESS OF EXTERNAL WATER HYDROLOGIC CALCULATIONS Water Balance of Landfill Top Cover Systems Estimation of Surface Runoff Using the Rational Method Introduction Estimation of Time of Concentration Estimation of Rainfall Intensity Runoff Coefficients Example Estimation of Surface Runoff Using the Curve Number Method Introduction Into the Curve Number Method Calculation of Runoff Coefficient With the Hydrologic Evaluation of Landfill Performance Model Example Advanced Methods of Calculation of Surface Runoff Estimation of Soil Percolation Rates DESIGN AND HYDRAULIC CALCULATION OF SURFACE RUNOFF COLLECTION SYSTEMS Integration of Surface Runoff Collection in Top Cover Systems Design of Swales and Ditches Hydraulic Calculation DESIGN AND HYDRAULIC CALCULATION OF DRAINAGE SYSTEMS Integration of Drainage Systems in Top Cover Systems Design of Drainage Layers Hydraulic Calculation of the Drainage Layer Basic Equations Analytical Solutions Examples References 9.1 9.1. LANDFILL GAS GENERATION MODELING INTRODUCTION STRUCTURE OF LANDFILL GAS PRODUCTION MODELS Estimation of maximum landfill gas yields (L0) Landfill gas generation rates Generation time EXAMPLES OF DEVELOPED MODELS The landfill gas emissions model The FOD model according to the IPCC UNCERTAINTIES AFFECTING MODELS References 9.2 9.2. QUALITY OF LANDFILL GAS INTRODUCTION MAIN CONSTITUENTS Changing composition over time Changing landfill gas composition depending from location Changing landfill gas composition during gas extraction Gas types TRACE CONSTITUENTS References 9.3 9.3. COLLECTION AND DISPOSAL OF LANDFILL GAS FUNDAMENTALS GAS EXTRACTION AND TRANSPORTATION DESIGN AIDS FOR A GAS COLLECTION SYSTEM Gas wells Header pipes and gas distribution stations Gas extraction and flaring MONITORING, CONTROL, AND CONCLUSIONS PASSIVE GAS DISPOSAL/VENTING References 9.4 9.4. UTILIZATION OF LANDFILL GAS AND SAFETY MEASURES INTRODUCTION REQUIREMENTS GAS PRETREATMENT, GAS STORAGE TANKS Dewatering, drying Removal of chlorine, fluorine, and silica compounds Removal of sulfur Gas storage tank LANDFILL GAS UTILIZATION TECHNOLOGIES Combined heat and power gas engines Gas turbines Methane supply in to a public or private gas net Burner and boiler SAFETY MEASURES References 9.5 9.5. LANDFILL GAS MANAGEMENT BY METHANE OXIDATION INTRODUCTION FROM PROCESS UNDERSTANDING TO TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT The CH4 Oxidation Process as Basis for Biomitigation—What Is Important? Attenuation of Non-CH4 Landfill Gas Constituents The Role of Biomitigation Systems in Landfill Gas Management Types of Biomitigation Systems Protocol for Establishing a Biomitigation System Initial Characterization of a Landfill Baseline Study of CH4 Emissions Testing Available Bioactive Material Establishing the Full-Scale Biomitigation System Evaluation of CH4 Oxidation Efficiency of the Biomitigation System Analysis of the Economic Viability of the Biocover Technology Methodologies for Documentation of Biomitigation System Functionality Evaluation of CH4 Oxidation in Biomitigation Systems Using Carbon Mass Balances Evaluation of CH4 Oxidation Efficiency From Soil Gas Profiles Evaluation of CH4 Oxidation in Biomitigation Systems Using a CH4 Mass Balance Evaluation of CH4 Oxidation by Comparing Before and After Total CH4 Emission Measurements OVERVIEW ON BIOMITIGATION SYSTEMS ESTABLISHED IN THE FIELD CHALLENGES IN BIOMITIGATION SYSTEMS AND FUTURE RESEARCH NEEDS References 10.1 10.1. STRATEGIC ISSUES IN LEACHATE MANAGEMENT INTRODUCTION LANDFILL LEACHATE DISCHARGE LIMITS IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES (EXAMPLES) LEACHATE TREATMENT PLANT DESIGN AID Leachate quality Leachate quantity Leachate treatment options dependent on leachate quality PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH LEACHATE TREATMENT References 10.2 10.2. LEACHATE QUALITY INTRODUCTION BIOLOGICAL PROCESSES AND LEACHATE QUALITY LEACHATE QUALITY LONG-TERM ASPECTS OF LEACHATE QUALITY LEACHATE QUALITY FROM LANDFILLS FOR MECHANICALLY AND BIOLOGICALLY TREATED WASTE (MECHANICAL BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT LANDFILLS) INFLUENCE OF LANDFILL IN SITU AERATION ON LEACHATE QUALITY LEACHATE QUALITY FROM BOTTOM ASH LANDFILLS LEACHATE FROM OTHER LANDFILL TYPES CONCLUSIONS References 10.3 10.3. BIOLOGICAL LEACHATE TREATMENT INTRODUCTION GENERAL REMARKS ANAEROBIC TREATMENT AEROBIC TREATMENT PROCESSES General description Aerated lagoons Activated sludge treatment plant Sequencing batch reactors Fixed film reactors BIOLOGICAL COTREATMENT OF SEWAGE AND LANDFILL LEACHATE References Further Reading 10.4 10.4. PHYSICAL–CHEMICAL LEACHATE TREATMENT INTRODUCTION PRECIPITATION, COAGULATION, AND FLOCCULATION Principles and processes Reduction of organic leachate pollution with precipitation, coagulation, and flocculation The use of precipitation, coagulation, and flocculation in reducing the content of metals and suspended solids in leachate Reduction of ammonium by precipitation Final remarks MEMBRANE PROCESSES Principle of membrane processes Technical use of reverse osmosis and nanofiltration membranes Final remarks ADSORPTION Basic principles of adsorption Activated carbon Application of different technologies for activated carbon adsorption Other adsorption materials Final remarks CHEMICAL OXIDATION Basic principles of oxidation Oxidation processes with hydrogen peroxide Oxidation processes by means of ozone Final remarks STRIPPING Final remarks EVAPORATION Final remarks CONCLUSIONS References 10.5 10.5. COMBINATION OF DIFFERENT MSW LEACHATE TREATMENT PROCESSES INTRODUCTION UPGRADING BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT PLANTS ACTIVATED SLUDGE PLANTS WITH SUBSEQUENT PRECIPITATION AND ADSORPTION STEPS ACTIVATED SLUDGE PLANTS WITH ACTIVATED CARBON FILTERS ACTIVATED SLUDGE PLANTS WITH OXIDATION PROCESS BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT WITH SUBSEQUENT REVERSE OSMOSIS CONCLUSIONS References 02 11.1 11.1. LANDFILL COVERS: PRINCIPLES AND DESIGN INTRODUCTION TYPOLOGIES OF COVER Daily cover Intermediate cover Temporary capping Permanent capping FUNCTIONS AND MATERIALS IN LANDFILL CAPPING Mass transport at the atmosphere-landfilled waste interface Capping structure and sequence of components Superficial layer Natural vegetative soil Vegetation Geosynthetic materials or mats/blankets Cobbles Paving materials Gas mitigation materials Drainage layer Sand and gravels Geosynthetics Residues from waste treatments Protective layer Unclassified soil Residues from waste treatments Water block Liner Compacted clay Geomembrane Low-permeable materials Capillary barriers Biogas drainage layer Waste-contact layer Equalization Reinforcement MAIN LANDFILL CAPPING COMBINATIONS AND DESIGN CRITERIA Sequencing of components and legal requirements Sealing capping Low-permeable capping Capillary capping Biocover Phytocapping Alternative/integrative options Phytotreatment/energy crops covers Solar energy recovery capping CONCLUSIONS References 11.2 11.2. PHYTOCAPPING OF LANDFILLS INTRODUCTION AUSTRALIAN ALTERNATIVE COVER ASSESSMENT PROGRAM STUDY FINDINGS Hydrological Performance—Phytocaps Versus Conventional Covers Plant Study Methane Oxidation PHYTOCAP GUIDELINES AND AUSTRALIAN STATE-BASED REGULATIONS PHYTOCAPPING IN PRACTICE Design Construction Maintenance CONCLUSIONS Acknowledgments References 12.1 12.1. LEACHATE RECIRCULATION: HISTORY, OBJECTIVES, AND CONCEPTUAL DESIGN INTRODUCTION OBJECTIVES OF LEACHATE RECIRCULATION ELEMENTS OF A RECIRCULATION SCHEME CONCEPTUAL DESIGN Seasonal flow management Stimulation of Gas Generation References 12.2 12.2. LEACHATE RECIRCULATION: DESIGN, OPERATION, AND CONTROL INTRODUCTION ENGINEERING DESIGN AND INSTALLATION INFRASTRUCTURE AND ITS PERFORMANCE Low Pressure Surface Application Horizontal Trenches and Pipes Pads and Drainage Blankets Wells Subsurface Band Drains (Constructed During Infilling) OPERATIONAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES Infrastructure Design Clogging and Reduction in Performance of Injection Infrastructure Need for Leachate Treatment Prior to Reinjection Flooding of Gas Wells Daily Cover Effects of Settlement Clogging of Basal Drainage Layer Obtaining Sufficient Volumes to Recirculate Slope Instability Odors and Uncontrolled Gas Release Adverse Impact on Leachate Quality Effect on Liner Systems Perching/Surface Outbreaks Surface Water Contamination Short Circuiting MONITORING OF RECIRCULATION SCHEMES AND PERFORMANCES Operational Performance of Recirculation Infrastructure Effects on Waste Decomposition and Leachate Quality Water Balance and Volumetric Aspect Environmental Risk Aspects CONCLUDING REMARKS References 13.1 13.1. LANDFILL SITING AND PUBLIC INVOLVEMENT INTRODUCTION SITING PROCEDURE SITING CRITERIA AND IDENTIFICATION OF ALTERNATIVES EVALUATION CRITERIA COMPARISON OF SITING ALTERNATIVES WITH MULTICRITERIA DECISION ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES Definition of criteria priorities using the PSW tool and application of AHP to the alternatives matrix weighted with PSW tool Definition of criteria priorities by means of PCT and application of the SAW method to the alternatives matrix weighted wit ... PUBLIC INVOLVEMENT References 13.2 13.2. LANDFILL PLANNING AND DESIGN INTRODUCTION LAWS AND REGULATIONS IN THE EUROPEAN UNION AND UNITED STATES LAND PLANNING PHASES PRELIMINARY PLANNING Waste categories and volumes Problem definition Inventory, analysis, and design targets Landfill siting and planning objectives Conceptual and preliminary design DETAILED AND EXECUTIVE DESIGN Space for waste landfilling Planning of the various landfill components and facilities Operational infrastructures Plans and reports CONSTRUCTION, OPERATION, AND AFTERCARE Construction Operation Aftercare AFTERUSE FINAL REMARKS References 13.3 13.3. LANDFILLING IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES GENERAL ISSUES RELATED TO MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER LIMITATION TECHNICAL CONSTRAINTS LANDFILL MODELS FOR DEVELOPING COUNTRIES Technical Suggestions Siting Slope Bottom Liner and Drainage Systems Leachate Management Landfill Gas Management Alternative Materials for Landfill Construction and Management Bottom Liner Drainage System and Covers Biogas Wells and Venting System Leachate Treatment A GLANCE AT THE WORLD OF DEVELOPING COUNTRIES CLEAN DEVELOPMENT MECHANISM PROJECTS CONCLUSIONS References Further Reading 14.1 14.1. LANDFILLING OF MECHANICALLY BIOLOGICALLY PRETREATED WASTE INTRODUCTION GENERAL ASPECTS OF MECHANICAL BIOLOGICAL PRETREATMENT WASTE LANDFILLING DESIGN AND OPERATION OF MBT LANDFILL Investigations of Mechanical Properties at Test Fields and in the Laboratory Experiences From Landfill Operation Emission Control FINAL REMARKS References 14.2 14.2. SEMIAEROBIC LANDFILLING INTRODUCTION PROCESSES Principles Mass balance EMISSIONS Quality of leachate Gas quality DESIGN GUIDELINES General structure Leachate collection pipes Gas venting pipes CALCULATION MODELS CODE OF PRACTICE FOR OPERATION CASE STUDIES Semiaerobic landfills in Japan Semiaerobic landfills in other countries References Further Reading 14.3 14.3. LANDFILL BIOREACTORS INTRODUCTION LANDFILL BIOREACTORS TYPOLOGIES Anaerobic Landfilling Aerated Landfilling Semiaerobic Landfilling Hybrid Landfilling Aerobic–Anaerobic Sequencing Anaerobic–Aerobic Sequencing Aerobic–Anaerobic–Aerobic Sequencing Compared Performance FINAL REMARKS References 15.1 15.1. LANDFILL OPERATION INTRODUCTION WASTE ADMITTED TO DISPOSAL Entrance control Handling of special types of waste Recyclable materials Bulky waste Debris or construction waste Sludge Industrial waste and other nonhazardous waste of nonmunicipal origin Hazardous waste TECHNICAL OPERATION Equipment Filling sequences and waste placement Compaction Daily cover Temporary roads and fences SAFETY AND SECURITY Storm water management Noise control Odor control Temperature and fire control Litter control Dust control Small animal and insect control LANDFILL MONITORING Leachate and groundwater monitoring Air and gaseous emission monitoring Settlement monitoring Temperature monitoring Moisture management Monitoring sustainable landfill performance LANDFILL OPERATION IN ASIA: EXAMPLE CHINA MSW COMPOSITION Regulations and standards for sanitary landfilling Sanitary landfill siting Sanitary landfill operation References 15.2 15.2. OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY INTRODUCTION General Remarks on Occupational Safety Hazards and Adverse Working Conditions at Landfills LEGAL FRAMEWORK IN THE EU AND IN GERMANY HAZARDS AND ADVERSE EFFECTS OF LANDFILL GAS Biogas Constituents Properties of Biogas and The Resulting Hazards Asphyxiation Toxic Effects and Health Risks Fire and Explosion Hazards Safety Measures HEALTH HAZARDS FROM BIOLOGICAL AGENTS HEALTH HAZARDS FROM ASBESTOS SAFETY MEASURES FOR WORKING IN SHAFTS AND UNDERGROUND BUILDINGS Protective Measures Against Hazardous Atmosphere Prevention of Ignition Hazards Protective Measures Against Electric Shock Hazards Safeguarding of Workers Equipment for Work and Rescue Organizational Protection Measures MEDICAL CARE CONCLUDING REMARKS References 16.1 16.1. AFTERCARE COMPLETION: FINAL STORAGE QUALITY ASSESSMENT INTRODUCTION ASSESSMENT OF LONG-TERM EMISSIONS Emission Potential of Landfills Emission Parameters Biogas Leachate Deposited Waste DEFINITION OF LANDFILL QUALITY PARAMETERS THE ASSESSMENT PROCEDURE CONCLUSIONS References 16.2 16.2. LANDFILL IN SITU AERATION INTRODUCTION BASIC PROCESSES DURING LANDFILL AERATION Changes in the gas phase Changes in the solid waste material Changes in the liquid phase ENGINEERING ASPECTS OF LANDFILL AERATION Air injection Off-gas extraction and treatment System operation MONITORING CONCEPT On-site monitoring Off-site monitoring IMPACT OF AERATION ON LANDFILL EMISSION BEHAVIOR Reduction of the organic content of the waste Reduction of greenhouse gases emissions from landfills Situation in Western Europe Situation in economic developing countries Changes in leachate quality Results from full-scale aeration projects Results from lab scale aeration tests COMPLETION OF THE AERATION PROCESS “Online” criteria Residual methane generation rate Reduction in the biodegradable organic carbon conversion rate Laboratory criteria Gas formation potential Respiration activity Supplementation criteria ECONOMIC ASPECTS RELATED TO LANDFILL AERATION References Further Reading 16.3 16.3. AFTERUSE OF LANDFILLS GENERAL ASPECTS OPTIONS FOR LANDFILL AFTERUSE METHODOLOGICAL APPROACH Potential risks to be considered in case of landfill utilization Prerequisite for landfill afteruse Monitoring program Assessment of the surrounding area Analysis of the landscape and terrain Analysis of the residential/infrastructural system Analysis of the productive system PROJECT REQUISITES Participation and consensus during the design and planning stage AFTERUSE OF LANDFILLS: POTENTIAL SCENARIOS OF INTERVENTION Scenario A/old landfills: when intended use is dictated by the shape Scenario B/intervention on operational landfills: the use of waste as a plastic material Scenario C/planned landfills: the project should be developed according to the intended use CONCLUSIONS References Further Reading 17.1 17.1. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS ASSESSMENT INTRODUCTION ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT METHODOLOGIES “Overlapping map” method Lists of questions and checklists Networks Correlation matrices Modeling methods THE LANDFILL MATRIX APPROACH The methodology Scope Definition of temporal and spatial scale Impact evaluation Evaluation of mitigations and compensations Evaluation of residual environmental impacts Final decision Application of the method to sanitary landfills Matrix of the causes and elements of impact (Matrix A) Matrix of potential impacts (Matrix B) Matrix of mitigations and compensations (Matrix C) Matrix of residual impacts (Matrix D) FINAL REMARKS References 17.2 17.2. LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT OF LANDFILLING INTRODUCTION RELEVANT METHODOLOGICAL ASPECTS Functional unit System boundary Time perspective and long-term emissions Biogenic carbon sequestration Modeling capital goods used in waste landfilling MODELING THE LANDFILL SYSTEM Open dump Conventional landfill Bioreactor landfill Semiaerobic landfill Low-organic landfill Impact of assumptions and choices Landfill type Collection rates Energy recovery Oxidation Concentrations of substances LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT CASE STUDIES Case study I: comparison among landfilling scenarios Key modeling assumptions Key results Case study II: environmental impact associated with individual waste fractions Key modeling assumptions Key results Landfilling compared with other technologies: overview of recent life cycle assessment studies References Further Reading 18.1 18.1. LFG MIGRATION INTRODUCTION CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR LANDFILL GAS MIGRATION AND EMISSION TRANSPORT PROCESSES AND GOVERNING FACTORS Advection Diffusion Dilution/gas dispersion SINK AND SOURCE PROCESSES Gas to water transfer Sorption of pollutants to soil Degradation and formation of gas constituents CONCEPTUAL MODEL AND MIGRATION RISKS EXPERIENCES WITH MIGRATING GAS AT LANDFILLS METHODS TO CONTROL GAS MIGRATION References 18.2 18.2. GROUNDWATER QUALITY MONITORING IN LANDFILL AREAS INTRODUCTION SOURCE OF CONTAMINANTS Natural organic substances Inorganic macrocomponents Heavy metals and metalloids Xenobiotic organic compounds SITE CONCEPTUAL MODEL Preliminary conceptual model Validation of the conceptual model Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3 GROUNDWATER MONITORING NETWORK DESIGN AND MANAGEMENT Design of monitoring wells arrangement Monitoring well design and installation Drilling Casing Screen and filter pack Annular seal Surface completion Development Unsaturated zone monitoring Groundwater measuring and sampling Measurement of hydrochemical parameters Quality assurance project plan in monitoring systems Report on groundwater monitoring results TRANSPORT OF SOLUTE IN GROUNDWATER AND NATURAL ATTENUATION Transport of solute in groundwater Contaminant attenuation Organic compounds Inorganic compounds GROUNDWATER QUALITY DATA MANAGEMENT Statistical data processing Data value representation Hydrochemical maps Time series analysis Background values New landfill Existing and old landfill Threshold value assessment USE OF NATURAL TRACERS IN GROUNDWATER MONITORING—INVESTIGATION AROUND LANDFILL SITES Chemical tracers Nitrogen–chloride ratio Specific xenobiotics Isotope tracers Isotopes of hydrogen and oxygen Isotopes of carbon Chloride isotopes Isotopes of nitrogen Biological Tracers FINAL REMARKS References 19.1 19.1. INVESTIGATIONS ON CLOSED LANDFILLS INTRODUCTION GEOPHYSICAL SURVEYS GEOTECHNICAL AND HYDRAULIC TESTS SOLID WASTE CHARACTERIZATION EMISSION ANALYSIS CONCLUSIONS References 19.2 19.2. PRINCIPLES OF LANDFILL REMEDIATION INTRODUCTION UNCONTROLLED EMISSIONS FROM LANDFILLS REMEDIATION OPTIONS CONCLUSIONS References 19.3 19.3. LANDFILL MINING INTRODUCTION PRELIMINARY TESTS FOR WASTE AND LANDFILL CHARACTERIZATION RECOVERY OF RESOURCES PRETREATMENT BEFORE EXCAVATION EXCAVATION, SEPARATION, AND TREATMENT COSTS AND FUNDING CONCLUSIONS References 20.1 20.1. LANDFILLING OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF WASTE: LEACHING BEHAVIOR INTRODUCTION LEACHING PROCESSES AND ENVIRONMENTAL LEACHING ASSESSMENT STANDARDIZATION OF LEACHING TESTS Developments in Leaching Relevant to Landfilling of Waste Chemical Speciation of Various Wastes CONCLUSIONS References 20.2 20.2. INCINERATOR RESIDUE MONOFILLS INTRODUCTION LANDFILL OPTIONS AND PRACTICES FOR MSWI RESIDUES LANDFILL STRATEGY AND RISK ASSESSMENT THE SOURCE TERM MONITORING DATA ON LEACHATE FROM MSWI RESIDUE LANDFILLS References 21.1 21.1. CAPITAL AND OPERATIONAL COSTS INTRODUCTION ECONOMIC ISSUES IN THE EUROPEAN LANDFILL DIRECTIVE CALCULATION METHODS AND FINANCING OPTIONS Calculation Methods Financing Options, Gate Fee, Landfill Tax COST UNITS/COST ELEMENTS Development Costs: Planning and Design, Permissions Landfill Construction Landfill Operation Leachate Treatment and Disposal of Residues Gas Utilization, Energy production, Costs, and Benefits Landfill Closure and Aftercare CASE STUDIES, REFERENCE EXAMPLES Reference Examples for Landfill Costs EU Reference Examples in Australia Case Study in Brazil Costs Related to Technical Standards Costs for Landfill Closure and Aftercare CONCLUSIONS General Comments Remarks for Industrialized Countries Remarks for Developing Countries References 21.2 21.2. LANDFILL EXTERNALITIES INTRODUCTION THE PRICE TAG OF THE ENVIRONMENT Valuation methods of externalities Direct valuation methods: stated preference methods Contingent valuation method Choice modeling method Indirect valuation methods: revealed preference methods Hedonic price method Averting behavior method Cost of illness method Health production function Travel cost method Experts' assessment of damage costs Control cost method Cleanup cost method Replacement cost method Court decision assessment Ancillary Methods Value of statistical life Benefit transfer THE PRICE TAG OF ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF LANDFILLS Assessment of the overall disamenities from a landfill Aggregation of specific emissions of contaminants LANDFILL TAX THE LANDFILL TAX PARADOX THE ROLE OF ASSESSING EXTERNALITIES IN WASTE MANAGEMENT CONCLUSIVE REMARKS LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS References 21.3 21.3. CLEAN DEVELOPMENT MECHANISM (CDM) IN LANDFILLING INTRODUCTION CLEAN DEVELOPMENT MECHANISM METHODOLOGIES RELATED TO LANDFILLING CLEAN DEVELOPMENT MECHANISM PROJECTS RELATED TO LANDFILLING Statistical data Performance of clean development mechanism landfill projects PROS AND CONS OF CLEAN DEVELOPMENT MECHANISM LANDFILL PROJECTS—DISCUSSION Methane oxidation factor Methane correction factor Waste characteristic (amount of biodegradable organic carbon) Moisture content and distribution References 23 INDEX A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Z