Carbon Dioxide Utilization. Volume 2: Transformations

Description

The conversion of CO2 to chemicals and consumables is a pioneering approach to utilize undesired CO2 emissions and simultaneously create new products out of sustainable feedstock. Volume 2 describes several routes to transform CO2 into various compounds by catalytic and electrochemical as well as photo- and plasma induced reactions. Both volumes are also included in a set ISBN 978-3-11-066549-9. Catalysts for the conversion of CO2 Electrochemical conversion of CO2 to e.g. formic acid, CO, alcohols and hydrocarbons Photo- and plasma induced transformations Cover Half Title Also of interest Carbon Dioxide Utilization: Transformations Copyright About the Editors Contents List of contributing authors Part IV: Catalytic reactions of CO2 15. Catalysts for the conversion of CO2 to cyclic and polycarbonates 15.1 Introduction 15.1.1 Use and importance of cyclic and polycarbonates 15.1.2 Why is cyclic and polycarbonate synthesis via CDU green? 15.2 Reaction mechanisms for cyclic and polycarbonate formation from CO2 and epoxides 15.3 Catalysts for cyclic and polycarbonate formation 15.3.1 Non-metal (and electrochemical) systems for cyclic carbonate formation 15.3.2 Metal catalysts for cyclic carbonate formation 15.3.3 Metal catalysts for polycarbonate formation 15.3.4 Metal catalysts for cyclic and polycarbonate formation 15.4 Summary and concluding remarks References 16. Sustainable feedstock for conversion of CO2 to cyclic and polycarbonates 16.1 General introduction 16.2 Biobased cyclic carbonates 16.2.1 Cyclic carbonates derived from terpene precursors 16.2.2 Cyclic carbonates derived from sugars 16.2.3 Cyclic carbonates derived from fatty acids 16.2.4 Cyclic carbonates derived from other biobased compounds 16.3 Polycarbonates derived from renewable compounds 16.3.1 From alkylene oxide monomers 16.3.2 From terpene-based monomers 16.3.3 From lipids 16.4 Applications of biobased polycarbonates 16.5 Conclusions and outlook References 17. Carbon dioxide hydrogenation to formic acid 17. 1Introduction 17.2 General aspects of CO2 hydrogenation to FA 17.2.1 Thermodynamic considerations 17.2.2 Kinetic considerations 17.3 Development of catalytic systems 17.3.1 Catalysts with phospine-based ligand architecture 17.3.2 Catalysts with pincer-based ligand architecture 17.3.3 Catalysts with N-heterocyclic-carbene-based ligand architecture 17.3.4 Half sandwich complexes as catalyst for the hydrogenation of CO2 17.4 Conclusions Bibliography 18. CO2 Hydrogenation to Methanol and Dimethyl Ether 18.1 Introduction 18.2 Importance and main uses of methanol and dimethyl ether 18.3 Thermodynamic and kinetic considerations 18.4 Main catalysts for CO2 hydrogenation 18.5 Possible Intermediates and reaction pathway 18.6 Bifunctional catalysts for coupling methanol synthesis from CO2 and the subsequent dehydration to dimethyl ether 18.7 Industrial plant for CO2 hydrogenation to methanol in Iceland Bibliography 19. Towards sustainable methanol from industrial CO2 sources 19.1 Introduction 19.2 Processes for methanol synthesis 19.2.1 State of the art of conventional methanol synthesis 19.2.2 Innovations in methanol synthesis process 19.3 CO2 utilisation from industrial sources 19.3.1 Case of CO2 re-use from ammonia plant: Process design and energy integration 19.3.1.1 Model description CO2 capture Water/CO2 co-electrolysis Methanol synthesis 19.3.1.2 Energy integration 19.3.1.3 Efficiency calculation 19.3.2 Case of CO2 re-use from other industries 19.3.2.1 Ethanol industry 19.3.2.2 Natural gas industry 19.3.2.3 Ethylene industry 19.3.2.4 Steel mills 19.3.2.5 Cement industry 19.3.2.6 Power industry 19.4 Economic study of methanol from CO2 19.5 Conclusions Bibliography 20. CO2 hydrogenation to methane 20.1 Introduction 20.2 Power-to-gas systems 20.3 Conversion chains of power-to-gas 20.3.1 Low temperature electrolysis 20.3.2 High temperature electrolysis 20.3.3 Hydrogen injection into the gas grid 20.4 The methanation reaction: Thermodynamics and kinetics 20.5 Catalytic reactors technologies 20.6 Reactor modelling, simulation and optimisation 20.7 Demonstration projects 20.8 Techno-economic assessment and regulations 20.8.1 Production costs of hydrogen and methane 20.8.2 Regulatory issues 2.9 Conclusion References 21. Fischer–Tropsch synthesis using CO2 21.1 Introduction 21.1.1 Background 21.1.2 Power-to-X 22.2 Reaction mechanism 21.2.1 FTS from CO2 via RWGS 21.2.2 Synthesis of alternative products 21.3 Catalysts 21.3.1 Cobalt 21.3.2 Iron 21.4 Reactors 21.4.1 Gas-phase reactors 21.4.2 Liquid-phase Fischer–Tropsch synthesis 21.5 Future perspectives References Part V: Electrochemical reactions of CO2 22. Electrochemical conversion of CO2 into formate or formic acid 22.1 Introduction 22.1.1 Background 22.1.2 Electrochemical reduction of CO2 22.1.3 Current status of formic acid industry 22.2 Electrochemical synthesis of formate and formic acid 22.2.1 Electrocatalysts 22.2.1.1 Lead (Pb) 22.2.1.2 Tin (Sn) 22.2.1.3 Indium (In) 22.2.1.4 Copper (Cu) 22.2.1.5 Bismuth (Bi) 22.2.1.6 Zinc (Zn) 22.2.1.7 Cobalt 22.2.1.8 Carbon 22.2.1.9 Other catalysts 22.2.2 Electrolyte 22.2.3 Temperature and pressure 22.3 Challenges and future opportunities References 23. Electrochemical conversion of CO2 to carbon monoxide 23.1 Introduction 23.2 Gold 23.3 Silver 23.4 Metal-free and transition metal-doped nitrogen-doped carbons 23.5 Summary and prospects References 24. Electrochemical conversion of CO2 into alcohols 24.1 Introduction 24.2 Electrocatalysts 24.2.1 Cu-based 24.2.3 Noble metals 24.2.2 Other transition metals 24.2.4 Post-transition metals 24.3 Electrolytes 24.3.1 Liquid electrolytes 24.3.1.1 Aqueous 24.3.1.2 Non-aqueous 24.3.1.3 Ionic liquids 24.3.2 Solid electrolyte 24.3.2.1 Solid polymer 24.3.2.2 Solid oxide 24.4 Electrochemical cells 24.4.1 Liquid-phase CO2 conversion 24.4.1.1 Cell configuration 24.4.1.2 Electrode structure 24.4.2 Gas-phase CO2 conversion 24.4.2.1 Polymer electrolyte membrane cell 24.4.2.2 Solid oxide electrolyte cell 24.5 Operating conditions 24.5.1 Liquid-phase CO2 conversion 24.5.1.1 pH 24.5.1.2 Temperature 24.5.1.3 Pressure 24.5.2 Gas-phase CO2 conversion 24.5.2.1 Potential 24.5.2.2 Temperature 24.5.2.3 H2/CO2 ratio 24.5.2.4 Flow rate 24.6 Conclusions 24.7 Prospects and challenges References 25. Electrochemical conversion of CO2 into hydrocarbons 25.1 Introduction 25.1.1 Copper – an electrode for CO2 reduction 25.2 Classification of metals for methane formation 25.2.1 Effect of process conditions for methane formation 25.2.2 Effect of nanostructures for methane formation 25.2.3 Effect of bimetals and alloys for methane formation 25.2.4 Effect of metal oxides for methane formation 25.2.5 Metals other than Cu for methane formation (Ru, Pt, Sn, Pb) 25.2.6 Mechanism of methane formation 25.3 Classification of metals based on ethylene formation 25.3.1 Effect of process conditions for ethylene formation 25.3.2 Effect of nanostructures for ethylene formation 25.3.3 Effect of bimetals and alloys for ethylene formation 25.3.4 Effect of metal oxides for ethylene formation 25.3.5 Computational aspect for enhancement of ethylene formation 25.4 Conclusion References 26. Non-reductive CO2 electrochemistry 26.1 Introduction 26.2 Cell parameters 26.3 Electrochemical carboxylation reactions 26.3.1 Dimerisation of CO2 to oxalate 26.3.2 Carboxylation of alkenes (alkyl, aryl) 26.3.2.1 Dicarboxylation 26.3.2.2 Monocarboxylation 26.3.3 Carboxylation of alkynes (alkyl, aryl) 26.3.4 Carboxylation of conjugated systems 26.3.5 Carboxylation of carbonyls and imines 26.3.6 Carboxylation of alkyl, benzyl, aryl and alkenyl halides 26.4 Summary of carboxylation approaches and future outlook References 27. Carbon dioxide utilisation by bioelectrochemical systems through microbial electrochemicals synthesis 27.1 Introduction 27.1.1 What are bioelectrochemical systems 27.1.2 What is microbial electrochemical synthesis 27.1.3 Advantages and challenges of bioconversion of CO2 27.2 Principles and reaction pathways for CO2 utilisation in BES 27.2.1 Electron transfer mechanisms in CO2-reducing biocathodes 27.2.2 Microbial communities and reaction pathways in MES 27.2.2.1 Pure cultures and reaction pathways for CO2 conversion 27.2.2.2 Mixed microbial communities 27.2.3 Parameters influencing products and efficiency of CO2 conversion in BES 27.2.3.1 Impact of applied potential 27.2.3.2 Impact of pH 27.2.3.3 Impact of reactor design: Batch versus continuous 27.2.4 Reactor design and cell configurations 27.2.4.1 MES cell configuration 27.2.4.2 Reactor design for product extraction and continuous production 27.2.5 Integrated and hybrid MES for CO2 utilisation 27.2.5.1 MES integrated with renewable electricity 27.2.5.2 Artificial photosynthesis utilising hybrid inorganic-MES 27.3 Concluding remarks and perspectives References Part VI: Photo- and plasma induced reactions of CO2 28. Plasma-based CO2 conversion 28.1 Introduction 28.2 Plasma reactor types for CO2 conversion 28.2.1 Dielectric barrier discharge (DBD) 28.2.2 Microwave plasma 28.2.3 Gliding arc discharge 28.2.4 Other plasma types used for CO2 conversion 28.2.5 Principle of plasma catalysis 28.3 CO2 conversion processes: Reactions, reactors and performance 28.3.1 CO2 splitting 28.3.1.1 Mechanisms of CO2 dissociation 28.3.1.2 Dissociation performance in different plasma approaches 28.3.2 Plasma conversion of CO2 with CH4 28.3.2.1 Plasma conversion 28.3.2.2 Plasma catalysis 28.3.3 Plasma CO2 hydrogenation 28.3.3.1 Plasma conversion 28.3.3.2 Plasma catalysis 28.3.4 CO2 with water 28.3.4.1 Plasma conversion 28.3.4.2 Plasma catalysis 28.4 Summary and steps to be taken for further improvement References 29. Photocatalytic approaches for converting CO2 into fuels and feedstocks 29.1 Introduction 29.2 Materials 29.2.1 TiO2 29.2.2 CuOx and other composites with TiO2 29.2.3 Noble and platinum-group metals on TiO2 29.2.4 WO3 and Bi2WO6 29.2.5 In2O3 and InNbO4 29.2.6 BiOBr, BiOI and BiVO4 29.2.7 Metal sulphides 29.2.8 C3N4, MOFs and zeolites 29.3 Summary and future outlook References 30. Photochemical reduction of CO2 with metal-based systems 30.1 Inroduction 30.2 Rhenium-containing catalysts 30.3 Manganese-based electrocatalysts 30.4 Ruthenium-containing catalysts 30.5 Photocatalytic systems with Earth-abundant components 30.6 Iron-, Cobalt-, Nickel-, Zinc-containing catalysts and photosensitisers 30.7 Heterogeneous catalytic systems 30.8 Photoelectrochemical cells 30.9 Modern spectroscopic methods of studying catalytic mechanisms References Index