Ecological Risks of Emerging Pollutants in Urbanizing Regions

Description

This book characterizes the major pollution patterns of emerging contaminants, such as sources, emission effluents, temporal and spatial distributions, multi-media transportation and transformation processes, exposure pathways to ecosystems and humans, and ecological risks. Based on this, it establishes an urbanizing region management concept and highlights how urbanization and its regional ecology have evolved into a more integrated vision. It also decouples the relations between urbanization and emissions of emerging pollutants that are framed within a broad socio-ecological context considering institutions, policies, and governance. All the theory, methods, and case studies have been taken from the authors’ publications, which have undergone rigorous international peer review. The book presents the spatial distribution, pathways, and flow diagrams of the pollutants as well as the interactions between urbanization and regional pollution and includes detailed figures and pictures. It also investigates ecological risk characterization and expression using maps based on geographic information systems to illustrate the general profile and the spatial variation of risks. The book is a valuable resource for postgraduates, researchers, academics, environmental NGOs, and regional managers such as urban planners, environmental agency staff, legal regulators, and decision makers. Bridging the gap between environmental science and policy, it offers interdisciplinary theory, approaches, and case studies that facilitate applications of frontier science in ecology and environmental science to regional social and economic development. Preface Acknowledgements Contents Editors and Contributors Abbreviations List of Figures List of Tables 1 Environmental Exposure of Emerging Pollutants in Urbanizing Regions 1.1 Overview 1.2 Spatiotemporal Distribution of Emerging Pollutants 1.2.1 Chlorinated POPs 1.2.2 Brominated POPs 1.2.3 Fluorinated POPs 1.3 Emission Hot Spot Areas Related to Industrialization 1.3.1 Daling River Basin in North Bohai, China 1.3.2 Xiaoqing River Basin in South Bohai China 1.3.3 Emission and Transport of HBCD from a Large Producer 1.4 Temporal Variation of PFAAs Emitted from Fluorochemical Industry 1.4.1 Annual Trend 1.4.2 Seasonal Trend 1.4.3 PFAAs Emissions Related to Construction and Production Activities 1.5 Executive Summary References 2 Source Identification and Emission Estimation of Emerging Pollutants 2.1 Industrial Emission Estimation of PFOS 2.1.1 Identification of Industrial Sources 2.1.2 Estimation of Industrial Emission: Methodology 2.1.3 Summary of the Emissions of PFOS Equivalents 2.1.4 Contributions of Various Industrial Sources 2.1.5 Spatial Distribution on the Industrial Emission Sources 2.1.6 Uncertainty Analysis 2.2 Domestic Emission Estimation of PFOS 2.2.1 Theoretical Assumption 2.2.2 Study Area and Data Collection 2.2.3 Modeling the Domestic Emission 2.2.4 Prediction of Domestic Emission Density 2.2.5 Estimation of Domestic Emission 2.2.6 Uncertainty Analysis and Study Limitation 2.3 Comparison Between Industrial and Domestic Emission 2.4 Executive Summary References 3 Environmental Pathways of Emerging Pollutants 3.1 Overview 3.2 Pollution Pathways of PFOS and PFOA 3.2.1 Identification of Sources and Pollution Pathways 3.2.2 Estimation Methods of Environmental Releases 3.2.3 Major Sources Screening and Release Comparison 3.2.4 Contribution Estimation of PFOS and PFOA in Different Pathway 3.2.5 Uncertainty Analysis and Study Limitation 3.3 Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) of PFOA/PFO 3.3.1 Framework of LCA 3.3.2 Acquisition of Data on Production and Use 3.3.3 Identification of Transfer Coefficients (TC) and Emission Factors (EF) 3.3.4 Flows in Production and Use 3.3.5 Flows in Waste Management 3.3.6 Storage in the Environment 3.3.7 Alternatives or Mitigation Technologies for PFOA/PFO 3.3.8 Uncertainty Analysis 3.4 Executive Summary References 4 Multimedia Modeling of the Fate for Emerging Pollutants 4.1 Overview 4.2 Establishment of the BETR-Bohai Model 4.2.1 Segmentation of the Study Area 4.2.2 Model Structure 4.2.3 Model Parameterization 4.2.4 Sensitivity Analysis 4.2.5 Uncertainty Analysis 4.3 Using BETR-Bohai Model to Simulate the Spatial Fate of BaP 4.3.1 Model Parameterization for BaP 4.3.2 BaP Emission Estimation 4.3.3 Model Output and Validation 4.3.4 BaP Inventory Calculation 4.3.5 Transfer Fluxes of BaP 4.3.6 Sensitivity and Uncertainty of the Model 4.4 Using the BETR-Bohai Model to Explore the Fate and Transport of PFOS 4.4.1 Model Parameterization for PFOS 4.4.2 PFOS Emission Scenarios 4.4.3 Model Output and Validation 4.4.4 Fate and Transfer Processes 4.4.5 Influence of Seasonal Variance of Freshwater Fluxes 4.5 BETR-Urban–Rural (BTER-UR) Model: An Optimization for BETR 4.5.1 Description of Optimized Model Structure 4.5.2 Optimized Modules of Regional Environmental Factors and Contaminant Fate 4.6 Using the BETR-UR Model to Simulate the Transport of PAHs 4.6.1 Model Setup for PAHs 4.6.2 Model Validation and Contaminant Fate 4.6.3 Transport Fluxes of PAHs 4.6.4 Model Sensitivity and Uncertainty Analysis 4.7 Using the BETR-UR Model to Simulate the Dynamic Multimedia Fate of PFOS from 1981 to 2050 4.7.1 Temporal Distributions of PFOS Emissions and Environmental Parameters 4.7.2 Model Validation with Predicted and Measured PFOS Concentrations 4.7.3 Spatial Distributions of Modeled Peak Concentrations of PFOS 4.7.4 Temporal Trends of Modeled PFOS Concentrations in Freshwater 4.7.5 Compartmental Distribution of PFOS 4.7.6 Regional Dynamic Mass Balance of PFOS 4.8 Using the BETR-UR Model to Evaluate the Multimedia Fate of PFOS in the Context of Urbanization and Climate Change 4.8.1 Emission Scenarios of PFOS 4.8.2 The Climate Change and Urbanization Scenarios 4.8.3 Model Validation and Output 4.8.4 Spatially Projected Changes in Concentrations of PFOS 4.8.5 Changes in Annual Mass Fluxes of PFOS to the Bohai Sea 4.8.6 Changes in Fate and Transport of PFOS: A Case Study of Tianjin City 4.9 Using the BETR-UR Model to Simulate the Multimedia Fate and Transport of PFOA/PFO 4.9.1 Model Parameterization for PFOA/PFO 4.9.2 Emission Estimation of PFOA/PFO 4.9.3 Model Validation and Output 4.9.4 Fate and Transport Processes of PFOA/PFO 4.9.5 Sensitivity and Uncertainty Analysis 4.10 Urban–Rural Gradients of PCBs and Source Identification Using Fugacity Model 4.10.1 Establishment of the Model 4.10.2 Regional Emission Inventory 4.10.3 Spatial Distribution of PCB Concentrations in Soils 4.10.4 Urban-To-Rural Gradients 4.10.5 PCB Emissions Versus Soil Concentrations 4.10.6 Source Identification and Chemical Fate 4.10.7 Measured Data and Model Validation 4.10.8 Predicting the Spatial Distribution of PAH Concentrations in Soils 4.10.9 Uncertainty of the Simulation Results 4.10.10 Executive Summary 4.11 Using a Generalized Model to Quantify and Predict the Urban–Rural Gradients of PAHs in Soils 4.11.1 Theoretical Derivation of URGM References 5 Ecological Risk Assessment of Emerging Pollutants: Methodology and Application 5.1 Regional Multi-compartment Ecological Risk Assessment 5.1.1 The Framework of the Methodology 5.1.2 Risk Assessment Procedure 5.1.3 Data Screening and Processing Rules 5.1.4 Case Study: Cadmium Risk in the Northern Bohai Coastal Region 5.2 Integrated Regional Ecological Risk Assessment of Multiple Pollutants 5.2.1 The Framework of the Methodology 5.2.2 Toxicity Data Collection and Processing 5.2.3 Probabilistic Ecological Risk Assessment 5.2.4 Case Study: Metal Risks in the Coastal Region Around the Bohai and Yellow Seas 5.3 Improved Methodology of Risk Rankings for Multiple Pollutants 5.3.1 Study Area Description 5.3.2 Chemicals Selection 5.3.3 Concentration Data Collection and Processing 5.3.4 Ecotoxicity Data Collection and Processing 5.3.5 Assessment of Risk 5.4 Application of Risk Rankings in Bohai Coastal Region 5.4.1 Metals 5.4.2 EDCs and PPCPs 5.4.3 POPs 5.5 Comparison of Risk Rankings Between Rivers in China and the UK 5.6 Executive Summary References 6 Evaluating the Comprehensive Effects of PFAAs Emited from the Fluorochemical Industry 6.1 Effects on Surface and Groundwater 6.1.1 Sampling Design and Collection 6.1.2 Occurrence of PFAAs in Surface and Groundwater 6.1.3 Transport and Exchange of PFAAs Between Surface Water and Groundwater 6.1.4 Dispersion and Transport of PFAAs in Groundwater from the FIP 6.1.5 Risks of PFAAs in Surface and Groundwater to Human Health and Ecology 6.2 Effects on Crops and Farmland Environment 6.2.1 Sampling Design and Collection 6.2.2 Multi-media Distribution and Transport of PFAAs 6.2.3 Crop Grain Bioaccumulation of PFAAs 6.2.4 Human Exposure Estimation of PFAAs for Residents 6.3 Effects on Multiple Grain Crops and Vegetables in Typical Production Fields 6.3.1 Sampling Design and Collection 6.3.2 Occurrence of PFAAs in Agricultural Soil and Crops 6.3.3 Crop Bioaccumulation of PFAAs in Contaminated Farmland 6.3.4 Human Health Risks of PFAAs for Local Urban and Rural Residents 6.4 Effects on Aquatic Plants in the River and Artificial Wetland 6.4.1 Research Design and Sampling 6.4.2 PFAAs in Key Processes of the WWTPs 6.4.3 PFAAs in Water 6.4.4 Bioaccumulation of PFAAs in Aquatic Plants 6.4.5 Evaluation and Exploration on Effective Removal of PFAAs 6.5 Effects on Aquatic Animals in the River-Estuary-Sea Environment 6.5.1 Research Design and Sampling 6.5.2 Natural Stable Isotope Analysis 6.5.3 PFAAs in Aquatic Organisms 6.5.4 Factors Affecting the Bioaccumulation of PFOA in Aquatic Animals 6.5.5 Ecological Risk Evaluation of PFOA 6.5.6 Managing Health Risks of PFOA Exposure via Consumption of Aquatic Food 6.6 Effects on Home and Commercially Produced Chicken Eggs 6.6.1 Sampling Design and Collection 6.6.2 Occurrence of PFAAs in Chicken Egg Yolks 6.6.3 Occurrence of PFAAs in Egg Whites, Whole Eggs and Distribution Pattern of PFAAs in Eggs 6.6.4 Human Exposure to PFAAs via Egg Consumption 6.7 Indoor and Outdoor Dust 6.7.1 Sampling Design and Collection 6.7.2 PFAAs in Indoor Dusts 6.7.3 PFAAs in Outdoor Dust 6.7.4 Source Identification of PFAAs in Dust 6.7.5 Human Exposure to PFAAs via Dust Ingestion and Dermal Absorption 6.8 Effects on the Atmospheric Environment: Air, Dust, and Rain 6.8.1 Research Design and Sampling 6.8.2 Measurement of PFAAs in Air 6.8.3 Comparisons Among Air, Outdoor Dust, and Rain 6.8.4 Human Health Risk Evaluation of PFOA 6.9 Executive Summary References 7 Environmental Health Policy Implications and Future Perspectives 7.1 Overview 7.2 Urbanization, Rural Development, and Environmental Health 7.2.1 Urbanization and its Impacts on Environmental Change 7.2.2 Impacts of Urbanization on Rural Development 7.2.3 Impacts of Urbanization on Human Health 7.2.4 Narrowing Down the Urban-Rural Gap for Sustainable Urbanization 7.3 Public Perception and Attitude Towards Chemical Industry Park 7.3.1 Location of Chemical Industrial Parks 7.3.2 Public Perceived Risk, Impacts, and Benefits of a Chemical Industrial Park 7.3.3 Public Awareness of Chemical Industrial Parks 7.4 Chemical Accidents and Emerging Response System 7.4.1 Existing Chemical Accident Databases in China 7.4.2 Review of Existing Chemical Accidents Data in China 7.4.3 Chemical Emergency Management Policy 7.5 Policy and Regulations for the Management of Emerging Contaminants 7.5.1 National Regulations on Chemicals 7.5.2 Management and Regulations Related to POPs 7.6 Ecosystems-Based Management of Emerging Pollutants Along Urbanized Coasts References