Fats and Associated Compounds: Consumption and Human Health

Description

Traditionally, dietary fat has been associated with negative effects on human health by consumers due to its high energy density. However, today it is well known that the quality of the fat ingested is more important than its quantity, and that there are natural lipophilic compounds that are essential for the correct maintenance of human physiological functions. For this reason, the negative image associated with dietary fat consumption is not fully justified. Dietary fat is a hot research area that has attracted increasing attention in the last decades. An adequate intake of dietary fats adapted to our age and physical activity, as well as an increase in the intake of beneficial fatty compounds and controlling the intake of those types of fats that have negative effects on our health, can be powerful allies in preventing the development of chronic non-communicable diseases. Through this book, the Editors have compiled the most up to date and well-documented information on many aspects of the development and application of novel dietary patterns related to fatty compounds, with special emphasis on beneficial effects. They have considered fatty nutritional requirements at different stages of life, the international guidelines and the application of new -omics techniques, such as epigenetics, nutrigenomics, metabolomics and metagenomics, related to human health. This book will be of interest to researchers in food technology and biomedicine, as well as the food industry and food distribution areas. Cover Preface Contents 1 Fat Requirements in Pregnancy and Infancy 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Energy Requirements of Pregnancy and Fetal Adiposity 1.2.1 Energy Requirements of Pregnancy 1.2.2 Fetal Adiposity 1.2.2.1 Factors Influencing Fetal Adiposity 1.3 Metabolic Adaptations in Pregnancy 1.3.1 Lipid Metabolism in Pregnancy 1.3.2 Regulation of the Metabolic Adaptations 1.3.3 Impacts of Maternal Hypertriglyceridemia on Mother and Infant 1.3.4 Fetal Perspective on Maternal Metabolic Adaptations 1.4 Placenta in the Maternal–Fetal Interface 1.4.1 Placental Fatty Acid Transfer 1.5 Fetal Fat Requirements and Maternal Reference Values of Dietary Intake 1.5.1 Fetal Fat Requirements 1.5.2 Dietary Reference Values for Pregnancy 1.5.3 Dietary Intake of Pregnant Women 1.5.3.1 Relation of Maternal Dietary n-3 LC-PUFAs with Child Health 1.6 Energy and Fat Requirements in Infancy 1.6.1 Fat Requirements in Infancy 1.6.2 Infant Feeding Modes 1.6.2.1 Health Effects of Breastfeeding 1.6.2.2 Breast Milk Fat Composition 1.6.2.3 Complementary Feeding of the Infants 1.7 Conclusions References 2 Dietary Fat Requirements in Adults 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Types of Fat 2.2.1 Fatty Acids 2.2.2 Sterols 2.3 Dietary Fat in Health and Disease 2.3.1 Dietary Fatty Acids 2.3.2 Dietary Cholesterol 2.4 Dietary Recommendations 2.4.1 Food and Agricultural Organization, 2010 2.4.2 European Food Safety Agency, 2010 2.4.3 French Guidelines, 2010 2.4.4 Swiss Nutrition Society, 2013 2.4.5 Australian Government, 2013 2.4.6 German Nutrition Society, 2015 2.4.7 Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2015 2.4.8 World Health Organization, 2018 2.4.9 European Society of Cardiology and European Atherosclerosis Society, 2019 2.4.10 American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association, 2019 2.4.11 UK Dietary Recommendations, 2019 2.4.12 The EAT-Lancet Commission, 2019 2.4.13 Pregnant Women 2.5 Main Sources of Fatty Acids 2.6 Practical Use of Dietary Fatty Acid-rich Foods Based on Evidence 2.6.1 Setting Up a Healthy Diet 2.6.2 Cooking Oils – Effects of Frying 2.6.3 Acquisition and Storage of Foods Rich in Fatty Acids 2.6.4 Food Preparation 2.7 Conclusion References 3 The Importance of Overall Body Fat in Human Health 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Obesity as a Disease:Metabolically Healthy Obesity 3.3 Obesity and Cardiovascular Disease 3.4 Obesity and Hypertension 3.4.1 Factors that Contribute to Hypertension in Obesity 3.5 Obesity and Diabetes 3.6 Obesity and Dyslipidemia 3.7 Obesity and Cancer 3.8 Obesity and Obstetric Risk 3.9 Obesity and Gastrointestinal Complications 3.9.1 Obesity and Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease 3.9.2 Obesity and Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease 3.9.3 Obesity and Gallstones 3.10 Obesity and Osteoarthritis 3.11 Obesity and Lung Disease Abbreviations References 4 Strategies to Modify and Improve the Fatty Composition of Foods 4.1 Introduction: Health Problems Associated with High Dietary Fat 4.2 Modification of the Fatty Acid Composition Through Animal Feeding 4.2.1 Feeding Strategies to Manipulate the Fatty Acid Content Through Forage and Pasture 4.2.2 Inclusion of Additives into Feed 4.3 Modification Through Genetic Modifications 4.4 Trends in Fatty Acid Modification 4.4.1 Oleogels 4.4.1.1 Oleogel Materials 4.4.2 Structured Lipids Acknowledgements References 5 Potential of Fatty Components in the Valorization of Foods by Means of Health Claims 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Functional Foods Are Foods with Claims 5.3 Main Fatty Components with Health Implications for Application in Functional Foods 5.3.1 Fatty Components 5.3.2 Dietary Recommendations Related to Fat and Fatty Acids 5.4 Main Sources of Healthy Fatty Components 5.4.1 Vegetable Sources 5.4.1.1 Unprocessed Seeds 5.4.1.2 Vegetable Oils 5.4.2 Marine Sources 5.4.2.1 Fish Meal and Fish Oil 5.4.2.2 Non-fish-derived LC 3 PUFAs: Algae and Microalgae 5.4.2.3 Other Sources of n-3 PUFAs 5.5 Nutrition and Health Claims Related to Fatty Components and the Condition of Use 5.6 Strategies Employed to Incorporate Healthy Fatty Components in Foods 5.6.1 Enhancing the Lipid Profile of Animal-derived Products Based on Practices of Animal Production 5.6.1.1 Nutritional Strategies 5.6.1.2 Genetic Strategies 5.6.2 Based on Reformulation Processes 5.7 Consumer Valuation of Nutrition and Health Claims 5.8 Concluding Remarks Acknowledgements References 6 Essential and Omega-3 Fatty Acids in Human Health 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Balance of n-6/n-3 Fatty Acids and Effects in Human Health 6.3 Fatty Acids in Body Weight Maintenance 6.4 n-3 and n-6 PUFAs as Anti- and Pro-inflammatory Lipid Mediators 6.5 Fatty Acid Effects on the Immune System and Allergy Prevention 6.6 Essential Fatty Acids and Cardiovascular Diseases 6.7 Essential Fatty Acids and Mental Health 6.8 Essential Fatty Acids and Cancer 6.9 Conclusions References 7 Effect of Reducing Total Fat Intake on Body Weight: A Review of the Evidence 7.1 Introduction 7.1.1 Early Research on Effects of Dietary Fat on Health 7.1.2 Early Research on Dietary Fat and Body Fatness 7.2 Why Might Reducing Dietary Fat Lead to Reduced Body Fatness – Possible Mechanisms 7.3 Dietary Fat and Body Fatness in Adults – The Evidence 7.3.1 Effects of Altering Intake of Total Dietary Fat on Body Fatness in Adults Not Trying to Lose Weight – Systematic Reviews 7.3.2 Effects of Altering Intake of Total Dietary Fat on Body Fatness in Adults not Trying to Lose Weight – A Well-controlled Fe 7.3.3 Effects of Types of Fat – Systematic Reviews 7.3.4 Effects of Reducing Dietary Fat Intake on Body Fatness in Overweight and Obese Adults – Systematic Reviews and Large Trial 7.3.5 Importance of Dietary Fat on Weight in Pregnancy 7.3.6 Associations Between Dietary Total Fat Intake and Body Weight in Adults – Observational Studies 7.4 Dietary Fat Intake and Body Fatness in Children 7.5 Summary, Implications and Conclusions 7.5.1 Summary 7.5.2 Implications References 8 Effect of Fatty Acid Type in Adipose Tissue Metabolism 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Molecular Structure Defines the Fatty Acid Type 8.2.1 Fatty Acids According to Chain Length 8.2.2 Fatty Acids According to Unsaturation Degree 8.2.3 Fatty Acids According to the Position of the First Double Bond 8.2.4 Fatty Acids According to the Isomeric Configuration 8.3 Human Dietary Sources of Fatty Acids 8.4 Essential Fatty Acids in Human Nutrition 8.5 Biological Function of Fatty Acids 8.6 White Adipose Tissue: Definition and Function 8.7 Effect of Fatty Acid Type in White Adipose Tissue Function 8.7.1 Fatty Acid Type in Adipokines Expression and Secretion 8.7.2 Fatty Acid Type in White Adipose Tissue Cellularity 8.7.3 Fatty Acid Type in Lipogenesis and Lipolysis 8.7.4 Inflammation in White Adipose Tissue 8.8 Effect of Fatty Acid Type in White Adipose Tissue Inflammation 8.8.1 In Vitro and Animal Studies 8.8.2 Human Intervention Studies 8.9 Adipocyte Membrane Fatty Acid Composition in Obesity: Putative Role in Weight Loss and Regain 8.10 Concluding Remarks References 9 Human Health and the Consumption of Fat-associated Compounds: Tyrosol, Hydroxytyrosol, Oleuropein, Oleacein, and Oleocanthal 9.1 Secoiridoid Metabolism in Olive Fruit and Olive Oil 9.1.1 Agronomic and Processing Factors in the Biosynthesis and Biotransformation of SEC 9.2 Effect of Cooking on SEC Concentration 9.2.1 The Effect of Cooking on the Phenolic Profile of EVOO 9.2.2 Effect of EVOO Phenolic Compounds on Oil Oxidation 9.2.3 Effect of EVOO Phenolic Compounds on the Formation of Toxic Compounds 9.3 The Bioavailability of EVOO Phenolics and Controlled Delivery Strategies 9.3.1 Metabolism of EVOO Phenolic Compounds 9.3.1.1 Phase I Reactions 9.3.1.2 Phase II Reactions 9.3.1.3 Microbial Metabolites 9.3.2 Accumulation of Phenolic Compounds and Their Metabolites in Target Tissues 9.4 Secoiridoid Health Effects 9.4.1 Modulation of Oxidative Stress and Inflammation 9.4.2 Cardiovascular Protection 9.4.3 Neuroprotection 9.4.4 Cancer 9.4.5 Metabolic Syndrome 9.4.6 Gut Microbiota 9.5 Controlled Delivery Strategies Abbreviations Acknowledgements References 10 Tocopherols in Human Health: The Unique Chemistry and Role of -Tocopherol 10.1 The Role of Antioxidants in Cells 10.2 Unique Antioxidant Chemistry of c-Tocopherol 10.3 Biological Associations and Effects of c-Tocopherol 10.4 Conclusions Acknowledgements References 11 Short-chain Fatty Acids and Human Nutrition 11.1 Introduction 11.2 SCFA Metabolism 11.2.1 Metabolic Routes 11.2.2 Cross-feeding Mechanisms 11.3 Impact of Diet on Gut Microbiota Composition and SCFA Production 11.3.1 Protein Fermentation 11.3.2 Probiotics 11.3.3 Fiber/Non-digestible Carbohydrate and Prebiotic Fermentation 11.4 Physiological Effects of SCFA 11.4.1 Intestinal Mucosal Barrier 11.4.2 Energy Homeostasis: Glucose and Lipid Metabolism 11.4.2.1 Glucose Metabolism 11.4.2.2 Lipid Metabolism 11.4.3 Immune Function 11.4.4 Gut–Brain Axis 11.5 Conclusions and Perspectives References 12 Metabolomics of Dietary Fatty Acids: Implications on Life Style Diseases 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Dietary Fatty Acids 12.3 Dietary Saturated Fatty Acids 12.4 Dietary Unsaturated Fatty Acids 12.5 Dietary Fatty Acid Digestion, Absorption, and Metabolites 12.6 Benefits of Dietary Fatty Acids 12.7 Reducing the Risk of Diabetes by Dietary Fatty Acids 12.8 Reducing the Risk of Obesity by Dietary Fatty Acids 12.9 Reducing the Risk of Cardiovascular Disease by Dietary Fatty Acids 12.10 Conclusion Acknowledgments References 13 Effect of Dietary Fat on Gut Microbiota 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Dietary Fat 13.2.1 Recommendations and Trends in Consumption 13.3 Effect of High-fat Diets on the Intestinal Microbiota 13.3.1 Western Diet 13.3.2 Ketogenic Diet 13.4 Effect of Healthy, High-fat Foods on Gut Microbiota 13.4.1 Dairy Products – Milk 13.4.2 Avocado 13.4.3 Olive Oil 13.4.4 Coconut Oil 13.4.5 Nuts 13.4.6 Fatty Fish References 14 Conclusion and Future Trends in Fat Consumption 14.1 Fat Requirements at Different Stages of Life 14.2 Toward Healthier Lipid Profiles in Foods 14.3 Molecules with Antioxidant and Antiinflammatory Activities 14.4 Dietary Fat–Microbiota–Short-chain Fatty Acids: A Close Interaction 14.5 Nutrigenomics: Basis to Understand the Relationship Between Dietary Fat and Human Health References Subject Index