From Darkness to Light: The Concept of Salvation in the Perspectives of Thomas Aquinas and Sankara

Description

The question on salvation with its multifarious dimensions had always been a significant subject-matter of discussion from time immemorial. All the religious traditions attempt to formulate appropriate answers to the questions related to this, one of the most crucial issues in theological reflections. Still the concept remains wide open for further research. It is St. Paul who said that, «For now we see in a mirror, dimly, but then we will see face to face. Now I know only in part; then I will know fully, even as I have been fully known.» (1 Cor. 13:13) Salvation, as St. Paul conceives it, is a face to face vision of God in perfect knowledge merited through the person of Christ and through the gratuitous gift of grace. It is a passage from ignorance to truth, from darkness to light and from death to immortality (Br. Upa. I. iii. 27). From Darkness to Light aims at an enhanced understanding of the concept of salvation, comparing the theological and soteriological positions of Thomas Aquinas and Śankara. The author has made an admirable attempt in Comparative Theology, deciphering and clarifying all related concepts of salvation in both the thinkers. Cover Acknowledgements V Table of Contents Abbreviations Used XIII General Introduction 1 PART I: From Bondage to Salvation 7 Chapter 1: Sinful Man in Need of Salvation 7 Introduction 7 1.1The Creation Narrative, a Christian Perspective 8 1.2 Aquinas’ Understanding of Creation 9 1.2.1 God, the One and the Highest Good 12 1.2.2 Creation of Man and the Image of God in Man 13 1.2.3 Body and Soul 17 1.3 Sin, a Black Mark in the History of Salvation 19 1.3.1 The First Fall as Original Sin 21 1.3.2 Original Sin as Sin of Nature 25 1.3.3 Original Sin and Actual Sin 28 1.3.4 Causes of Sin 30 1.3.4.1 Human Will as the Cause of Evil 31 1.3.4.2 The Role of Ignorance 32 1.3.4.3 God and the Devil as Persuaders of Sin 35 1.3.5 Effects of Sin 38 1.3.5.1 Original Sin as an Effect of the First Fall 39 1.3.5.2 Loss of Original Justice 39 1.3.5.3 Stain of Sin on the Soul 42 1.3.5.4 Loss of Supernatural Qualities 43 1.3.5.5 The Evil of Death 45 1.3.4.6 The Triple Alienation 48 Conclusion 50 Chapter 2: From Avidya to Mukti 53 Introduction 53 2.1 Brahman, the Only Supreme Reality 53 2.1.1 Nirguna Brahman, the Way of Negation 56 2.1.2 Saguna Brahman, the Way of Affirmation 56 2.1.3 Nature of Brahman 57 2.1.3.1 Brahman as Pure Sat 58 2.1.3.2 Brahman as Pure Cit 59 2.1.3.3 Brahman as Pure Ananda 59 2.2 The Creation of the World 61 2.3 Atman, the Principle of Breath 66 2.3.1 The Notion of Jivatman and Paramatman 67 2.3.2 Body and Soul 69 2.3.3 The Different States of the Soul 72 2.3.3.1 The State of Dream 72 2.3.3.2 The State of Deep Sleep 73 2.3.3.3 The State of Waking 74 2.3.3.4 The State of Swoon 75 2.4 The Advaitic Notion of Bondage 76 2.4.1 Body and the Sense Objects 76 2.4.2 Maya, the Mysterious Power of Brahman 77 2.4.2.1 Vivekacudamani on Maya 79 2.4.2.2 The Characteristics of Maya 80 2.4.3 Ego as the Cause of Bondage 81 2.4.4 Avidya as the Prime Cause of Bondage 83 2.4.4.1 The Conception of the Term Avidya 84 2.4.4.2 The Origin and Nature of Avidya 86 2.4.4.3 Maya and Avidya 86 2.4.4.4 Avidya as Superimposition 87 2.4.4.5 Ignorance or Avidya as Limitedness 88 Conclusion 90 PART II: Process of Salvation 91 Chapter I: Ways and Means of Salvation, Aquinas’ Approach 91 Introduction 91 1.1 Acquisition of Knowledge as the First Step 92 1.2 Faith, the Key to Salvation 96 1.2.1 Faith in the Sacred Doctrines, A Necessity for Salvation 98 1.2.2 Faith and Purity of Heart 100 1.3 Christ as Mediator of Salvation 101 1.3.1 Incarnation as a Plan of Salvation 103 1.3.2 The Mission of Christ, a Ministry of Salvation 106 1.3.3 Paschal Mysteries, the Salvific Mysteries of Christ 108 1.3.3.1 The Salvific Meaning of the Suffering of Christ 109 1.3.3.2 The Effects of the Passion of Christ 114 1.3.3.3 Resurrection and Ascension, the Ultimate Victory 116 1.4 Grace, the Medium of Salvation 119 1.4.1 The Need of Grace 122 1.4.2 The Types of Grace 124 1.4.2.1 Grace as Sanctifying or Habitual 125 1.4.2.2 Actual Grace 126 1.4.2.3 Gratuitous Grace 127 1.4.2.4 Grace as Operating and Co-operating 128 1.4.2.5 Prevenient Grace and Subsequent Grace 129 1.4.3 The Effect of Grace 130 1.4.3.1 Justification 131 1.4.3.2 Merit, a Gratuitous Effect of Grace 132 1.5 Sacraments, the Channels of Divine Grace 134 1.5.1 The Sacrament of Baptism 136 1.5.2 Confirmation, the Seal of the Holy Spirit 138 1.5.3 The Sacrament of Reconciliation 140 1.5.4 Eucharist, the Sacrament of Love 143 1.5.5 The Sacrament of Anointing, a Healing Presence of Grace 146 1.6 Prayer and Meditation, A Bridge to the Divine 148 Conclusion 152 Chapter 2: Śaïkara and the Suggested Means of Salvation 153 Introduction 153 2.1 Karma Marga, the Path of Action 153 2.1.1 Śaïkara on Karma Marga 155 2.2 Bhakti Marga, the Way of Devotion 158 2.2.1 Sivanandalahari on Devotion 161 2.3 J¤āna Marga, the Path of Knowledge 164 2.3.1 The Three Processes of Attaining Knowledge 166 2.3.2 Scripture as the Source of Knowledge (øruti Pramàna) 167 2.4 Meditation as the Path to Liberation 171 2.4.1 The Nature of Meditation 172 2.4.2 Śaïkara’s Vision of Meditation 173 2.4.3 Types of Meditation 174 2.4.4 The Great Mahavakyas as Objects of Meditation 176 2.4.4.1 Om, the Symbol of the Infinite 177 2.4.4.2 Tat tvam asi, the Supreme Truth 180 2.4.4.3 Aham Brahmasmi, an Invitation to Self Realization 182 2.5 Renunciation, a Negation to Possess 184 2.6 Role of Divine Grace 188 2.7 Rituals, a Fore-runner of Liberation 190 Conclusion 192 PART III: Life Liberated 195 Chapter I. Aquinas’ Understanding of Salvation 199 Introduction 199 1.1 The Reality of Death 200 1.2 Life after Death as Eternal Life 202 1.2.1 Salvation as a Reward and as a Gift 203 1.2.2 Salvation as a State of Glorification of Body and Soul 204 1.2.3 Beatific Vision 208 1.2.3.1 Happiness, the Ultimate End 210 1.2.3.2 The Attainment of Happiness 212 1.3 Salvation, a Perfect State of Life 215 Conclusion 216 Chapter 2: Śaïkara’s Understanding of Salvation 219 Introduction 219 2.1 Jivanmukti 220 2.1.1 Upanishads on Jivanmukti 221 2.1.2 Śaïkara on Jivanmukti 222 2.1.3 The Hallmark of Jivanmukta 224 2.2 Videhamukti, a Notion of a Perfect Salvation 226 2.3 Death, a Passage from Samsara to Eternity 229 2.4 The Law of Karma and Rebirth 231 2.5 Liberation as Perfect Union with Sat-cit-ananda Brahman 234 2.6 The Conditions of the Liberated Soul 237 Conclusion 241 PART IV: A Bridge between or A Wall Separating, A Comparative Analysis 243 Introduction 243 1 Similarity in the Approach to the Sources 245 2 Similarity in the Concept of God: Summum Bonum or Sat-cit-ananda 247 3 Esse Est Unum and Ekam Sat 249 4 God and Creation 251 5 Body, an Unavoidable Evil 255 6 Sin and Avidya 258 7 The Universal Character of Knowledge 261 8 Meditation as Union with God 267 9 Salvation as Perfect Happiness 269 10 The Role of Grace 271 11 Mediatorship in Salvation 273 12 Jivanmukta an Advaitic Contribution 274 Conclusion 276 Critical Appraisal 277 Bibliography 285