Continuous Emission Monitoring

Description

CONTINUOUS EMISSION MONITORING The new edition of the only single-volume reference on both the regulatory and technical aspects of U.S. and international continuous emission monitoring (CEM) systems Continuous Emission Monitoring presents clear, accurate, and up-to-date information on the technical and regulatory issues that affect the design, application, and certification of CEM systems installed in power plants, cement plants, pulp and paper mills, smelters, and other stationary sources. Written by an international expert in the field, this classic reference guide covers U.S. and international CEM regulatory requirements, analytical techniques, operation and maintenance of CEM instrumentation, and more. The fully revised Third Edition remains the most comprehensive source of CEM information available, featuring three brand-new chapters on mercury monitoring, the reporting and ­certification of industrial greenhouse gas emissions, and the instrumentation and methods used to measure air toxic compounds including dioxins, furans, and hydrogen chloride. Thoroughly updated chapters discuss topics such as flow rate monitors, new EPA regulations, instrumentation and calibration techniques, CEM system control and data acquisition, and extractive system design. Providing environmental professionals with the knowledge of CEM systems necessary to address the present-day regulatory environment, Continuous Emission Monitoring: Discusses how CEM systems work, their advantages and limitations, and the regulatory requirements governing their operationCovers both the historical framework and technological basis of current CEM regulatory programs and standards in the United States, Canada, Europe, and AsiaOffers practical guidance on sampling system selection, measurement techniques, advanced monitoring approaches, recordkeeping, and quality assuranceProvides detailed technical descriptions of the technology necessary for regulatory complianceIncludes new orthographic drawings to help instrument technicians and regulators with little technical background to easily understand key topics Continuous Emission Monitoring, Third Edition is an essential resource for professionals responsible for ensuring regulatory compliance, managers and technicians who purchase, operate, and maintain CEM instrumentation, regulatory personnel who write and enforce operating permits, and instructors and students in upper-level environmental engineering programs. COVER TITLE PAGE COPYRIGHT PAGE CONTENTS PREFACE CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO CEM SYSTEMS A BRIEF HISTORY TYPES OF MONITORING SYSTEMS Extractive Systems In-Situ Systems Remote Sensors Parameter Monitoring Systems Analytical Techniques Used in CEM System Instrumentation Data Acquisition and Handling Systems THE ROLE OF QUALITY ASSURANCE APPLICATION SUMMARY BIBLIOGRAPHY CHAPTER 2 CEM REGULATIONS IMPLEMENTING RULES IN THE UNITED STATES U.S. Federal Implementing Rules State Programs and Federal Programs Administered by the States 40 CFR Part 62 – Federal Requirements for Existing Units Not Covered by a State Plan 40 CFR Part 70 – Title V Operating Permits PERFORMANCE SPECIFICATIONS QUALITY ASSURANCE REQUIREMENTS Part 60 Quality Assurance Procedures Other U.S. QA Procedures The Role of Calibration Gases INTERNATIONAL RULES Canada Europe Asia Latin America* Developing a National Continuous Emission Monitoring Program ENFORCEMENT POLICIES AND CEM SYSTEMS Compliance Indicating Systems – Using CEM Systems for Reporting Excess Emissions Enforcement Levels Level 2 Compliance Monitoring Systems – Using CEM Systems for Direct Compliance Compliance Assurance Monitoring and the Credible Evidence Rule Periodic Monitoring Epilogue REFERENCES BIBLIOGRAPHY CHAPTER 3 EXTRACTIVE SYSTEM DESIGN SOURCE-LEVEL EXTRACTIVE SYSTEMS Hot/Wet Systems Cool/Dry Systems with Conditioning Sample Probes Umbilical Line Calibration Gas System and Cylinder Gas Pressure Regulators Moisture Removal Methods Sample Pumps Fine Filters Assembling a Cool/Dry Extractive System CLOSE-COUPLED SYSTEMS DILUTION EXTRACTIVE SYSTEMS Dilution Probes Dilution Air Cleanup Systems External Dilution Systems (Probes) Enhancing the Operation of Dilution Systems Dilution Extractive Systems: Wet or Dry Measurement? SAMPLING INTERFACE/MONITOR CALIBRATION EXTRACTIVE SYSTEM COMPONENTS AND ACCESSORIES MINI-SYSTEMS MODULAR SAMPLING SYSTEMS CHAPTER 4 INTRODUCTION TO THE ANALYTICAL METHODS THE PROPERTIES OF LIGHT The Wave Nature of Light Absorption of Light by Molecules The Beer–Lambert Law LIGHT SCATTERING BY PARTICLES Rayleigh Scattering: r/λ ≤ 1 Mie Scattering: r/λ = 1 Geometric Optics: r/λ ≥ 1 Opacity and Transmittance Bouguer’s Law COMPONENTS OF A SPECTROMETER: BUILDING AN INSTRUMENT Radiation Sources Wavelength Selection Detectors Multipath Gas Cells Optical Components Constructing a Spectrophotometer CHAPTER 5 EXTRACTIVE SYSTEM ANALYZERS SPECTROSCOPIC METHODS – INFRARED MONITORING INSTRUMENTS Nondispersive Infrared Analyzers Laser-Based Analyzers Fourier-Transform Infrared (FTIR) Spectroscopy SPECTROSCOPIC METHODS – ULTRAVIOLET MONITORING INSTRUMENTS Nondispersive Ultraviolet Photometers SPECTROSCOPIC METHODS – LUMINESCENCE Fluorescence Analyzers for SO2 Measurement Chemiluminescence Analyzers for NO and NOx Measurement Low NOx Measurements. ELECTROANALYTICAL METHODS Polarographic Analyzers Potentiometric Analyzers Using Ion-Selective Electrodes Electrocatalytic Analyzers for Measuring Oxygen Paramagnetic Techniques for Measuring Oxygen Magnetopneumatic Instruments Thermal Conductivity Analyzers DEVELOPMENTS IN EXTRACTIVE SYSTEM GAS ANALYZERS Traditional Approaches Developing Approaches CHAPTER 6 IN-SITU GAS MONITORING SYSTEMS POINT (SHORT-PATH) IN-SITU MONITORS Probe Designs Point Monitor Analytical Methods Electrocatalytic In-situ Method Advantages and Limitations of Point In-situ Systems INTEGRATED-PATH MONITORING SYSTEMS Single-Pass Systems Double-Pass Systems Optical Depth Stratification Issues Integrated-Path Analyzer Calibration Issues Integrated-Path Analyzer Analytical Methods Advantages and Limitations of Integrated-Path CEM Systems Certification Test Criteria for Integrated-Path Monitors Quality Assurance for In-situ CEM Systems IN-SITU SYSTEMS VS. EXTRACTIVE SYSTEMS CHAPTER 7 FLOW RATE MONITORS REFERENCE METHODS FOR VOLUMETRIC FLOW Type-S Pitot Tube (Method 2) Three-Dimensional Pitot Tubes (Method 2F) Yaw-Nulling (Method 2G) Wall-Effect Measurements (Method 2H and CTM-041) Vane Anemometers Tracer Gas Dilution CONTINUOUS FLOW MONITORING METHODS Single Type-S Pitot Tube Averaging Differential Pressure Probes Thermal Mass Flowmeters Ultrasonic Flow Monitors Time-of-Flight Methods OTHER METHODS The Stack Venturi Physical Models Computational Fluid Dynamics Determination of Flow Rates from Engineering Calculations MONITORING FLOW IN PIPES CALIBRATING FLOW MONITORING SYSTEMS The “Pre-RATA” and the K Factor Problems in Calibrating Against a Reference Method PERFORMANCE SPECIFICATIONS FOR FLOW MONITOR CERTIFICATION Part 60 Appendix B Performance Specification 6 Part 75 Appendix A Specifications. Environment Canada Specifications EN-ISO 16911 Specifications FLOW MONITOR QUALITY ASSURANCE Daily Calibration Checks Daily Interference Checks Quarterly Leak Checks Flow-to-Load Ratio Test Semiannual/Annual RATA CHAPTER 8 OPACITY MONITORS BASIC COMPONENTS OF TRANSMISSOMETERS DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS AND MANUFACTURER’S PERFORMANCE SPECIFICATIONS FOR OPACITY MONITORS Opacity Monitoring Specific Design Criteria Manufacturers’ Performance Specification Tests Design Specifications For Low-Level Opacity Monitors OPACITY MONITOR INSTRUMENT DESIGN Beam Splitter Techniques Optical Density/Opacity Calculations Stack-Exit Correlation Calibration Filter Selection Combiner Equations Opacity–Mass Correlations OPACITY MONITOR PERFORMANCE SPECIFICATIONS Installation Requirements Field Audit Performance Tests Opacity Monitor Quality Assurance Quality Assurance Plan Daily Zero and Upscale Calibration Drift Test Quarterly Audit – Three-Point Calibration Error Test Annual Primary Zero Alignment Corrective Maintenance and Diagnostic Tests REFERENCES BIBLIOGRAPHY CHAPTER 9 CONTINUOUS PARTICULATE MONITORING REGULATORY SPECIFICATIONS CALIBRATING PARTICULATE MATTER CEMS (PM CEMS) Reference Method Tests Statistical Analysis Procedures Issues Associated with the Correlation Method CONTINUOUS PARAMETER MONITORING SYSTEMS (PM CPMS) Determining the Operating Limit (Case A) Determining the Operating Limit (Case B) BAG LEAK DETECTORS (BLD) ALTERNATIVE CALIBRATION METHODS Generating Reference Samples Mass References Particle Size Standards PARTICULATE MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES Accumulated Mass Sensors Optical Sensors Hybrid (Combination) Systems Monitoring in Wet Stacks Probe Electrification Methods – Triboelectric Devices Applied for Bag Leak Detection Choosing a PM System PM CEMS QUALITY ASSURANCE – REQUIREMENTS FOR CONTINIUING OPERATION The Quality Assurance/Quality Control Manual Routine Checks Quarterly Audits PM Correlation Audits DEVELOPMENTS IN PM CEMS CHAPTER 10 CEM SYSTEM CONTROL, DATA ACQUISITION, AND REPORTING CONTROL SYSTEMS Computer Control Programmable Logic Controllers Data Loggers Embedded Microprocessors THE DAHS COMPUTER CEM System Software Development Data Handling Functions of the DAHS Computer Data Reporting The U.S. EPA Excess Emission Report The U.S. EPA Part 75 Electronic Data Report Other U.S. Reporting Programs Communication DAHS QUALITY ASSURANCE SUMMARY CHAPTER 11 CERTIFYING CEM SYSTEMS PART 60 PERFORMANCE SPECIFICATIONS AND TEST PROCEDURES Installation Specifications PART 60 DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS FOR GAS MONITORING SYSTEMS Span Calibration Drift Capability PART 60 PERFORMANCE SPECIFICATIONS FOR GAS MONITORS Performance Specification Test (PST) Procedures in the United States and Canada The Calibration Drift (Error) Test Part 60 Calibration Drift Calculations The Linearity (Measurement Error) Test The Environment Canada Calibration Drift Test Cycle Time/Response Time Test Dynamic Spiking Test (Method of Standard Additions) The Relative Accuracy Test Bias Tests Relative Accuracy Procedure as a Percentage of the Emission Limit Relative Accuracy as a Percentage of Certified Gas Concentration (Alternative Procedures) The Relative Accuracy Test Report Causes for Failure of a Relative Accuracy Test PART 75 PERFORMANCE REQUIREMENTS PART 63.8 MONITORING REQUIREMENTS ENVIRONMENT CANADA EPS/1/PG/7 CEM GUIDELINES INTERNATIONAL APPROACHES TO CEM SYSTEM CERTIFICATION AND APPROVAL International Standards Organization (ISO) Standards for Gas Monitoring Systems The European Union EN 14181 Standard for Automated Monitoring Systems DEVELOPING CEM CERTIFICATION PROCEDURES AND STANDARDS CHAPTER 12 MONITORING FOR MERCURY MERCURY ISSUES MERCURY REGULATIONS Coal-Fired Electric Generating Units Cement Plants Municipal Waste Combustors and Incinerators Canadian Mercury Regulations Mercury Emissions Outside of North America MERCURY MONITORING Analytical Methods for Mercury Monitoring Continuous Mercury Monitoring Systems Calibrators SORBENT TRAP MERCURY MONITORING SYSTEMS Sorbent Trap System Design Criteria Required Calibrations PS-12B QUALITY CONTROL CRITERIA Advantages and Disadvantages of Sorbent Trap Systems CONTINUOUS MERCURY MONITORING SYSTEMS – CERTIFICATION Sorbent Trap Monitoring Systems – Certification CONTINUOUS MERCURY MONITORING SYSTEMS – QUALITY ASSURANCE Sorbent Trap Mercury Monitoring Systems – Quality Assurance REFERENCE TEST METHODS FOR MERCURY Ontario Hydro Method – Standard Test Method for Elemental, Oxidized, Particle-Bound and Total Mercury in Flue Gas Generated from Coal-Fired Stationary Sources (ASTM D6784) EPA Test Method 30A – Determination of Total Vapor-Phase Mercury Emissions EPA Test Method 30B – Determination of Total Vapor-Phase Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Combustion Sources using Carbon Sorbent Traps EPA Test Method 29 – Determination of Metals Emissions from Stationary Sources EPA Test Method 101A – Determination of Particulate and Gaseous Mercury Emissions from Sewage Sludge Incinerators CHAPTER 13 MONITORING HAZARDOUS AIR POLLUTANTS PART 61 NATIONAL EMISSION STANDARDS FOR HAZARDOUS AIR POLLUTANTS (NESHAPS) 40 CFR 63 AIR TOXICS PROGAM GENERAL PROVISIONS Definitions (§63.7) Performance Testing (§63.7) Monitoring Requirements (§63.8) Quality Control Programs [§63.8(d)] Performance Evaluation of CEMS [§63.8(e)] Recordkeeping and Reporting (§63.10) PART 63 SUBPARTS – SOURCE-SPECIFIC HAP MONITORING REQUIREMENTS Major Sources Affected by the Air Toxics Rule METHODS FOR MEASURING HAZARDOUS AIR POLLUTANTS MONITORING FOR ORGANIC COMPOUNDS Gas Chromatography Total Hydrocarbon Analyzers Mass Spectrometry Calorimeters Ion-Mobility Spectrometry MONITORING FOR ACID GASES Options for Monitoring Acid Gases HCl Calibration Gases MONITORING FOR METALS X-ray Fluorescence Spectrometry Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy Inductively Coupled Plasma Spectroscopy Certifying Multi-metal CEM Systems Particulate Matter Surrogate Monitoring POLYCHLORINATED DIBENZODIOXINS AND POLYCHLORINATED DIBENZOFURANS Dioxin/Furan Continuous Emission Monitoring Options in Part 63 SUMMARY – MEASURING HAPS CHAPTER 14 GREENHOUSE GAS MONITORING METRICS USED IN REPORTING GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS Gas Concentration Pollutant Mass Rate Global Warming Potential (GWP) Carbon Dioxide Equivalent (CO2e) Carbon (Emission) Intensity Per Capita CO2 Emissions Metrics and Their Implications DIRECT MEASUREMENT AND ESTIMATION METHODS FOR GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS IPCC EMISSION INVENTORY PROCEDURES REPORTING GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS – U.S. MANDATORY GREENHOUSE GAS REPORTING RULE The Tier Approach: Part 98 Subpart C – Calculating CO2 Emissions from Fuel Combustion Approaches to Reporting – Examples Uncertainties REPORTING GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS – CANADA REPORTING GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS – EUROPEAN UNION INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS ORGANIZATION (ISO) GREENHOUSE GAS STANDARDS SUMMARY CHAPTER 15 QUALITY ASSURANCE PROGRAMS FOR CEM SYSTEMS A QUALITY ASSURANCE FRAMEWORK PROCUREMENT QUALITY CONTROL Prepurchase Evaluation/Selection CEM System Technical Specifications Record Keeping Proposal Evaluations CERTIFICATION QUALITY CONTROL The Source Testing Company The Performance Specification Test Plan Performance Specification Test Quality Assurance Recommendations CONTINUING OPERATION – QUALITY ASSURANCE PROGRAMS Writing the Quality Assurance Manual CONTINUING OPERATION – ELEMENTS OF QUALITY CONTROL Daily Calibration Drift Verifications Periodic System Inspections Maintenance Managing Change Declaring Obsolescence Logbook Documentation CONTINUING OPERATION – AUDIT PROCEDURES Performance Audits Other Techniques CONTINUING OPERATION – SYSTEMS AUDITS/AGENCY INSPECTIONS Entrance Briefing CEM System Site Tour Calibration and Audit Gases Auditing in the CEM Shelter System Condition – Analyzer Control Panels/Analyzers Unit Operator(s) Interview Spare Parts Inventory Review of Records and Data The Exit Briefing The Audit Report The Quality Assurance Cycle APPENDIX B UNITS OF THE STANDARD AND F FACTORS CONCENTRATION-BASED STANDARDS The Basic Concentration Measurements (ppm, Percent) POLLUTANT MASS RATE STANDARDS PROCESS EMISSIONS WEIGHT RATE STANDARDS EMISSION RATE FOR COMBUSTION SOURCES: THERMAL EMISSION RATE FOR COMBUSTION SOURCES: THERMAL – F-FACTOR APPROACH The Oxygen-Based Dry F Factor, Fd The Oxygen-Based Wet F Factor, Fw The Carbon Dioxide-Based F Factor, Fc Tabulated F Factors and Conversion Factors Other Uses of F Factors Errors and Problems in the Use of F Factors SUMMARY REFERENCES APPENDIX B CONVERSION FACTORS AND USEFUL INFORMATION CONSTANTS IUPAC STANDARD TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE (STP) EPA STANDARD CONDITIONS Molecular Weights and Gas Concentration Units Atomic Weight CONVERSION EXPRESSIONS Temperature CONVERSION FACTORS Length Volume Mass Mass per Unit Volume Velocity Energy Power Power Estimation Factors Index EULA