Electronic instrumentation

Description

Cover Contents 1. Qualities of Measurements 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Performance Characteristics 1.3 Static Characteristics 1.4 Error in Measurement 1.5 Types of Static Error 1.6 Sources of Error 1.7 Dynamic Characteristics 1.8 Statistical Analysis 1.9 Standard 1.10 Electrical Standards 1.11 Atomic Frequency and Time Standards 1.12 Graphical Representation of Measurements as a Distribution Review Questions Multiple Choice Questions Practice Problems Further Reading 2. Indicators and Display Devices 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Basic Meter Movement 2.3 Taut Band Instrument 2.4 Electrodynamometer 2.5 Moving Iron Types Instrument 2.6 Concentric Vane Repulsion Type (Moving Iron Type) Instrument 2.7 Digital Display System and Indicators 2.8 Classifi cation of Displays 2.9 Display Devices 2.10 Light Emitting Diodes (LED) 2.11 Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) 2.12 Other Displays 2.13 Printers 2.14 Classifi cation of Printers 2.15 Printer Character Set 2.16 Character at a Time Impact Printers for Fully Formed Characters (Drum Wheel) 2.17 Line at a Time Impact Printers for Fully Formed Characters (Line Printers) 2.18 Drum Printer 2.19 Dot-Matrix Printers 2.20 Character at a Time Dot-Matrix Impact Printer 2.21 Non-Impact Dot-Matrix (NIDM) Printers Review Questions Multiple Choice Questions Further Reading 3. Ammeters 3.1 DC Ammeter 3.2 Multirange Ammeters 3.3 The Aryton Shunt or Universal Shunt 3.4 Requirements of a Shunt 3.5 Extending of Ammeter Ranges 3.6 RF Ammeter (Thermocouple) 3.7 Limitations of Thermocouples 3.8 Effect of Frequency on Calibration 3.9 Measurements of Very Large Currents by Thermocouples Review Questions Multiple Choice Questions Practice Problems Further Reading 4. Voltmeters and Multimeters 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Basic Meter as a DC Voltmeter 4.3 DC Voltmeter 4.4 Multirange Voltmeter 4.5 Extending Voltmeter Ranges 4.6 Loading 4.7 Transistor Voltmeter (TVM) 4.8 Chopper Type DC Amplifi er Voltmeter (Microvoltmeter) 4.9 Solid State Voltmeter 4.10 Differential Voltmeter 4.11 DC Standard/Difference Voltmeter 4.12 AC Voltmeter Using Rectifi ers 4.13 AC Voltmeter Using Half Wave Rectifi er 4.14 AC Voltmeter Using Full Wave Rectifi er 4.15 Multirange AC Voltmeter 4.16 Average Responding Voltmeter 4.17 Peak Responding Voltmeter 4.18 True RMS Voltmeter 4.19 True RMS Meter 4.20 Considerations in Choosing an Analog Voltmeter 4.21 Ohmmeter (Series Type Ohmmeter) 4.22 Shunt Type Ohmmeter 4.23 Calibration of DC Instrument 4.24 Calibration of Ohmmeter 4.25 Multimeter 4.26 Multimeter Operating Instructions Review Questions Multiple Choice Questions Practice Problems Further Reading 5. Digital Voltmeters 5.1 Introduction 5.2 RAMP Technique 5.3 Dual Slope Integrating Type DVM (Voltage to Time Conversion) 5.4 Integrating Type DVM (Voltage to Frequency Conversion) 5.5 Most Commonly Used Principles of ADC (Analog to Digital Conversion) 5.6 Successive Approximations 5.7 Continuous Balance DVM or Servo Balancing Potentiometer Type DVM 5.8 3½-Digit 5.9 Resolution and Sensitivity of Digital Meters 5.10 General Specifi cations of a DVM 5.11 Microprocessor-Based Ramp Type DVM Review Questions Multiple Choice Questions Practice Problems Further Reading 6. Digital Instruments 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Digital Multimeters 6.3 Digital Frequency Meter 6.4 Digital Measurement of Time 6.5 Universal Counter 6.6 Decade Counter 6.7 Electronic Counter 6.8 Digital Measurement of Frequency (Mains) 6.9 Digital Tachometer 6.10 Digital pH Meter 6.11 Automation in Digital Instruments 6.12 Digital Phase Meter 6.13 Digital Capacitance Meter 6.14 Microprocessor-Based Instruments 6.15 The IEEE 488 Bus Review Questions Multiple Choice Questions Further Reading 7. Oscilloscope 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Basic Principle 7.3 CRT Features 7.4 Block Diagram of Oscilloscope 7.5 Simple CRO 7.6 Vertical Amplifi er 7.7 Horizontal Defl ecting System 7.8 Triggered Sweep CRO 7.9 Trigger Pulse Circuit 7.10 Delay Line in Triggered Sweep 7.11 Sync Selector for Continuous Sweep CRO 7.12 Typical CRT Connections 7.13 High Frequency CRT or Travelling Wave Type CRT 7.14 Dual Beam CRO 7.15 Dual Trace Oscilloscope 7.16 Electronic Switch 7.17 (VHF) Sampling Oscilloscope 7.18 Storage Oscilloscope (For VLF Signal) 7.19 Digital Readout Oscilloscope 7.20 Measurement of Frequency by Lissajous Method 7.21 Spot Wheel Method 7.22 Gear Wheel Method 7.23 Checking of Diodes 7.24 Basic Measurement of Capacitance and Inductance 7.25 Oscilloscope as a Bridge Null Detector 7.26 Use of Lissajous Figures for Phase Measurement 7.27 Standard Specifi cations of a Single Beam CRO 7.28 Probes for CRO 7.29 Attenuators 7.30 Applications of Oscilloscope 7.31 Delayed Sweep 7.32 Digital Storage Oscilloscope (DSO) 7.33 Fibre Optic CRT Recording Oscilloscope 7.34 Oscilloscope Operating Precautions 7.35 Placing an Oscilloscope in Operation Review Questions Multiple Choice Questions Practice Problems Further Reading 8. Signal Generators 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Fixed Frequency AF Oscillator 8.3 Variable AF Oscillator 8.4 Basic Standard Signal Generator (Sine Wave) 8.5 Standard Signal Generator 8.6 Modern Laboratory Signal Generator 8.7 AF Sine and Square Wave Generator 8.8 Function Generator 8.9 Square and Pulse Generator (Laboratory Type) 8.10 Random Noise Generator 8.11 Sweep Generator 8.12 TV Sweep Generator 8.13 Marker Generator 8.14 Sweep-Marker Generator 8.15 Wobbluscope 8.16 Video Pattern Generator 8.17 Colour Bar Generator 8.18 Vectroscope 8.19 Beat Frequency Oscillator (BFO) 8.20 Standard Specifi cations of a Signal Generator Review Questions Multiple Choice Questions Further Reading 9. Wave Analyzers and Harmonic Distortion 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Basic Wave Analyzer 9.3 Frequency Selective Wave Analyzer 9.4 Heterodyne Wave Analyzer 9.5 Harmonic Distortion Analyzer 9.6 Spectrum Analyzer 9.7 Digital Fourier Analyzer 9.8 Practical FFT Spectrum Analysis Using a Waveform Processing Software (Ss-36) Review Questions Multiple Choice Questions Further Reading 10. Measuring Instruments 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Output Power Meters 10.3 Field Strength Meter 10.4 Stroboscope 10.5 Phase Meter 10.6 Vector Impedance Meter (Direct Reading) 10.7 Q Meter 10.8 LCR Bridge 10.9 RX Meters 10.10 Automatic Bridges 10.11 Transistor Tester 10.12 Megger 10.13 Analog pH Meter 10.14 Telemetry Review Questions Multiple Choice Questions Practice Problems Further Reading 11. Bridges 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Wheatstone’s Bridge (Measurement of Resistance) 11.3 Kelvin’s Bridge 11.4 Practical Kelvin’s Double Bridge 11.5 Bridge Controlled Circuits 11.6 Digital Readout Bridges 11.7 Microprocessor Controlled Bridges 11.8 AC Bridges 11.9 Capacitance Comparison Bridge 11.10 Inductance Comparison Bridge 11.11 Maxwell’s Bridge 11.12 Hay’s Bridge 11.13 Schering’s Bridge 11.14 Wien’s Bridge 11.15 Wagner’s Earth (Ground) Connection 11.16 Resonance Bridge 11.17 Maxwell–Wien Bridge 11.18 Anderson Bridge 11.19 The Owen Bridge 11.20 De Sauty Bridge 11.21 Carey Foster / Heydweiller Bridge 11.22 Types of Detectors 11.23 Precautions to be Taken when Using a Bridge Review Questions Multiple Choice Questions Practice Problems Further Reading 12. Recorders 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Strip Chart Recorder 12.3 Galvanometer Type Recorder 12.4 Null Type Recorder (Potentiometric Recorders) 12.5 Circular Chart Recorder 12.6 X–Y Recorder 12.7 Magnetic Recorders 12.8 Frequency Modulation (FM) Recording 12.9 Digital Data Recording 12.10 Objectives and Requirements of Recording Data 12.11 Recorder Selections for Particular Applications 12.12 Recorder Specifi cations 12.13 Potentiometric Recorder (Multipoint) 12.14 Digital Memory Waveform Recorder (DWR) 12.15 Applications of a Strip Chart Recorder Review Questions Multiple Choice Questions Practice Problems Further Reading 13. Transducers 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Electrical Transducer 13.3 Selecting a Transducer 13.4 Resistive Transducer 13.5 Resistive Position Transducer 13.6 Strain Gauges 13.7 Resistance Thermometer 13.8 Thermistor 13.9 Inductive Transducer 13.10 Differential Output Transducers 13.11 Linear Variable Differential Transducer (LVDT) 13.12 Pressure Inductive Transducer 13.13 Capacitive Transducer (Pressure) 13.14 Load Cell (Pressure Cell) 13.15 Piezo Electrical Transducer 13.16 Photo Electric Transducer 13.17 Photo-Voltaic Cell 13.18 Semiconductor Photo Diode 13.19 The Photo-Transistor 13.20 Temperature Transducers 13.21 Frequency Generating Transducer 13.22 Reluctance Pulse Pick-Ups 13.23 Flow Measurement (Mechanical Transducers) 13.24 Mechanical Flow Meter 13.25 Magnetic Flow Meters 13.26 Turbine Flowmeter 13.27 Measurements of Thickness Using Beta Gauge Review Questions Multiple Choice Questions Further Reading 14. Signal Conditioning 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Operational Amplifi er (OPAMP) 14.3 Basic Instrumentation Amplifi er 14.4 Applications of Instrumentation Amplifi ers (Specifi c Bridge) 14.5 Chopped and Modulated DC Amplifi er 14.6 Modulators Review Questions Further Reading 15. Filters 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Fundamental Theorem of Filters 15.3 Passive Filters 15.4 Active Filters 15.5 Butterworth Filter 15.6 Band Pass Filter 15.7 Band Reject (Stop) Filter 15.8 All Pass Filter 15.9 Universal Active Filters 15.10 Designing Procedures for FLT-U2 15.11 Types of Active Filters 15.12 Digital Filters 15.13 Discrete Functions 15.14 The 1-D Sampling Theorem 15.15 The 2-D Sampling Theorem 15.16 The 1-D Z-Transform 15.17 Fundamental Properties of 1-D Digital Systems 15.18 Fundamental Property of 2-D Digital Systems 15.19 Frequency Domain Representation 15.20 FIR 1-D Digital Filter Design (The Window Method) 15.21 Design Methods for IIR Digital Filters 15.22 1-D IIR Filter Design 15.23 Program for the Design of Butterworth and Chebyschev IIR Digital Filters by Means of the Bilinear Transformation 15.24 Microprocessor Based Digital Filter 15.25 Applications of Digital Filters Review Questions Multiple Choice Questions Practice Problems Further Reading 16. Measurement Set-up 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Measurements of Microwave Frequencies 16.3 Resonant Co-Axial Lines 16.4 Cavity Wavemeters 16.5 RF/UHF Field Strength Meter (Methods for Measuring the Strength of Radio Waves) 16.6 Measurement of Sensitivity 16.7 Measurement of Selectivity 16.8 Intermodulation Method of Measuring Non-Linear Distortion 16.9 Measuring Frequency Response in Audio Amplifi ers 16.10 Modulation 16.11 Measuring Frequency Modulation 16.12 Measuring Frequency Deviation with a Radio Receiver 16.13 Measuring Amplitude Modulation Using CRO Review Questions Multiple Choice Questions Further Reading 17. Data Acquisition System (DAS) 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Objective of a DAS 17.3 Signal Conditioning of the Inputs 17.4 Single Channel Data Acquisition System 17.5 Multi-Channel DAS 17.6 Computer Based DAS 17.7 Digital to Analog (D/A) and Analog to Digital (A/D) Converters 17.8 Data Loggers 17.9 Sensors Based Computer Data Systems 17.10 Electromechanical A/D Converter 17.11 Digital Transducer Review Questions Multiple Choice Questions Practice Problems Further Reading 18. Data Transmission 18.1 Introduction 18.2 Data Transmission Systems 18.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Digital Transmission Over Analog 18.4 Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) 18.5 Pulse Modulation 18.6 Digital Modulation 18.7 Pulse Code Format 18.8 Modems Review Questions Multiple Choice Questions Further Reading 19. Frequency Standards 19.1 Introduction 19.2 Primary Standards 19.3 Secondary Standards of Frequency 19.4 Practical Frequency Standards 19.5 Radio Signals as Frequency Standards 19.6 Precision Frequency Standards 19.7 The Atomic Clock Review Questions Multiple Choice Questions Further Reading 20. Measurement of Power 20.1 Introduction 20.2 Requirements of a Dummy Load 20.3 Bolometer 20.4 Bolometer Method of Power Measurement 20.5 Bolometer Element 20.6 Bolometer Mount 20.7 Measurement of Power by Means of a Bolometer Bridge 20.8 Unbalanced Bolometer Bridge 20.9 Self Balancing Bolometer Bridge 20.10 Measurement of Large Amount of RF Power (Calorimetric Method) 20.11 Measurement of Power on a Transmission Line 20.12 Standing Wave Ratio Measurements 20.13 Measurement of Standing Wave Ratio Using Directional Couplers Review Questions Multiple Choice Questions Practice Problems Further Reading 21. Control Systems 21.1 Basic Control Action 21.2 Defi nition (Terminology) 21.3 On–Off Control Action 21.4 Proportional Control Action 21.5 Offset 21.6 Basic Controller Confi guration 21.7 Classifi cation of Controllers 21.8 Electronic Controllers (EC) 21.9 Analog Electronic Process Controllers 21.10 Temperature Control using an Analog Electronic Controller 21.11 Choice of Electronic Transmission Signal 21.12 Digital Controllers 21.13 Digital Process Controller 21.14 Cascade Process Controller with Digital Controllers 21.15 Programmable Logic Controller 21.16 Distributed Control Systems Review Questions Further Reading Answers to Objective Type Questions Index