Chihera in Zimbabwe: A Radical African Feminist Principle

Description

Zimbabwean social media has been awash with images of a woman character, spirit, or concept called Chihera. Traditionally, a woman descending from the Mhofu (Eland) lineage/totem is known as Chihera.  In the cumulative tradition of the Shona (a Zimbabwean ethnic group), Chihera is a fiercely independent, assertive, free spirited, and no nonsense woman.   This volume seeks to deepen reflections on the Chihera phenomenon in the context of the search for gender justice in Zimbabwe and Africa. The authors reflect on how this radical indigenous feminist ethic circulating on social media can animate the quest for Zimbabwean and African women’s full liberation from patriarchy and all oppressive forces. They grapple with the issue of generating culturally sensitive theories and approaches to galvanize the struggle for African women’s liberation in post-colonial settings. Second, they locate the Chihera mystique in the context of the practical struggle for women’s empowerment. Third, the volume illustrates how the Chihera phenomenon could be utilized for gender justice in Zimbabwe and beyond.  Contents Notes on Contributors List of Images Chapter 1: Introducing a Radical African Indigenous Feminist Principle: Chihera in Zimbabwe Introduction Putting This Volume into Context Chihera: A Radical Zimbabwean/African Indigenous Feminist Spirit and Practice The Chihera Spirit: Transforming the Key Locales of Women’s Oppression Women’s Bodily Autonomy Freedom from Oppressive Cultural and Religious Ideologies Women’s Political Participation and Leadership Women’s Economic Empowerment Patriarchy Pushes Back: Critiques of Chihera Building on the Chihera Momentum: An Overview Structure of the Book Part I: Chihera in the Spiritual Hierarchy—Traversing Patriarchy Part II: From the Mouths of Chiheras and Mhofuyokuno—Disrupting Patriarchy Part III: Subverting Patriarchy—Chihera Persona in the Film Industry and Advocacy for Gender Parity Part IV: Chihera Prototype Navigating the Zimbabwean Genderised Economic Sector Part V: Confounding Chihera—Patriarchy Fights Back References Part I: Chihera in the Spiritual Hierarchy: Traversing Patriarchy Chapter 2: Chihera in the Ancestral Realm: Exploring Female Ancestry Among the Hera People in Buhera, Zimbabwe Introduction Statement of Study Background: Contextualization of Eland Female Ancestry (Chiheraism) Essential Theoretical Matters and the Shona Cultural Context Relevance of Symbolic Interactionism to Explore Chihera in the Ancestral Realm Methodology Assertiveness of Chihera dzimu (Ancestor) Chihera and Aesthetic Values Musha wavaChihera (Household of Chihera) Children Revere Their Mothers More Than Their Fathers Chihera and Traditional Leadership Chihera zitete remhuri (Chihera’s Aunting Role) Identity and Visibility of Chihera Ancestor in the Contemporary World Significance of kuera (Sacredness) in Chihera: Final Reflections Conclusion References Chapter 3: VaChihera: A Profile of Ndakaziva Introduction The Coping Strategy Chihera with Her Contemporaries Conclusion References Chapter 4: Chihera: Renegotiating the Status of Women in Shona Indigenous Culture in Zimbabwe Introduction Theoretical Framework The Status of Chihera Women in Shona Indigenous Culture: An Africana Womanist Perspective Chihera as the Backbone of the Economy Agriculture Maoko (Hands) Wealth Traditional Healing Traditional Midwifery (Mbuya Nyamukuta) Chihera and Leadership Chief (Mambo) Spirit Medium (Svikiro) Chihera and Social Life Marriage Motherhood Roles of Chihera as Mothers Childbearing Mothers as Nurturers Mothers as Caregivers Feeding the Family and Ethnic Group Mothers as First Teachers Chihera and Marriage Negotiations Tete (aunt) The Ambuya/Mbuyawasha (Mother-in-Law) and the Mombe Yeumai (Motherhood Cow) The Bride Chihera and Property Ownership Conclusion References Chapter 5: Chiheras’ Twenty-First-Century Profiling: Re-converging from Past Divisions in Monolithic Defying of Traditional Patriarchal Culture Introduction Definitions Identity Construction of the Hera People The Paucity of Women Characters in Hera Narratives Bobbing Presence of Women in Historical Narratives The Eland Characterization and Association of Clan Traits Thereof Emancipation of Chihera in Contemporary Narratives Pulled-In or Pushed-Up Identity Can All Women Be Chiheras? Conclusion References Part II: From the mouths of Chiheras and Mhofuyokuno: Disrupting Patriarchy Chapter 6: Ndini Chihera (I Am Chihera): An African Womanist Perspective on the Chihera Identity in Zimbabwe Introduction Chihera: The Categories ‘I Am Chihera’: Insider Narratives on the Socio-Cultural Construction of the Chihera Identity Shava Nyakudirwa Chihera and Social Media: Women Power as an Object of Ridicule Chihera: The Epitome of Women’s Liberation from Patriarchy Conclusion References Chapter 7: Ndini Baba vaChihera (I Am Chihera’s Father): A Narrative of the Chihera Persona Introduction Methodology Chihera in Action Kana vachitendwa (Praise eulogy for anaChihera) When You Are Dating anaChihera Conclusion Chapter 8: “Please Understand Me, I Am Chihera”: Issues of Character and Traits Among the Indigenous Zimbabwean Women of the Chihera Totem Introduction Myers Briggs Personality Sorter Theory Chihera Woman’s Path to Energy Chihera Woman’s Path to Discovery Chihera Woman’s Path to Decision Making Chihera Woman’s Path to Behaviour Conclusion References Chapter 9: Chihera’s Story: Keeping Ubuntu Alive Amidst the COVID-19 Pandemic Introduction Threads of Resilience The COVID-19 Pandemic Ubuntu Ubuntu as the Principle of Caring for the Health Care Needs of Others Ubuntu as the Principle of Caring for Each Other’s Well-Being and Fostering the Spirit of Mutual Support A Person with unhu/Ubuntu Will Take Care of Neglected Children Respect for the Community as Part of the African Ubuntu Philosophy A Person with Ubuntu/Unhu Welcomes Visitors A Person with Ubuntu Protects the Environment Patriarchy Connectedness Reflection References Chapter 10: Revisiting Totemic Praise Names: Chihera as Metaphor of Addressing Gender-Based and Sexual Violence in Post-colonial Zimbabwe Introduction Methodology Music and Totems Christian Denominations and Totems Myths and Stereotypes: An Evaluation Characteristics of Chihera: Dismantling the Pillars of Patriarchy Calling Men to Partnership: Chihera’s Quest for Gender Justice Chihera and Politics Social Men’s Movements: A Quest to Destroy Women’s Empowerment Re-Thinking Theology: Challenging Redundant Theologies of Oppression Conclusion References Part III: Subverting Patriarchy: Chihera Persona in the Film Industry and Advocacy for Gender Parity Chapter 11: Chihera in Film: The Subversion of Patriarchal and Customary Laws of Inheritance as Depicted in the Zimbabwean Feature Film Neria (1991) Introduction: Theorizing “Chihera” in Zimbabwean Films Neria as the Embodiment of Chihera: Confrontations with the African Customary Law of Inheritance Chihera and Clashes Between Modern Law and Traditional Customary Law Muffling Chihera’s Voice Through Modern Law in Neria (1991) Chihera and Female Agency in Zimbabwean Films Conclusion References Chapter 12: Genderising the Social Media: Analysing Chihera’s Antics in the Zimbabwean Context Introduction and Background to the Study Literature Review The Eland (Mhofu) Methodology Population and Sampling Findings and Discussion Conversation One: Chihera as the New Daughter-in-Law Discussion on Conversation One Conversation Two: Chihera and Mother-in-Law Discussion on Conversation Two Conversation Three: Chihera’s Subtle Attack on Her Mother-in Law Discussion on Conversation Three Conversation Four: Chihera and Her Sister-in-Law Discussion on Conversation Four Conclusion References Chapter 13: Socially Constructed Discourse on Chihera: An Asset or Liability in Zimbabwe’s Envisioned Gender Equal Society Introduction Research Methodology Theoretical Framework Background to the Chihera Religio-Traditional and Cultural Discourse Review of Related Literature Discussion and Analysis of the Findings Based on the Scenarios That Portray Chihera’s Attributes on Social Media Chihera Personality Brings Culture Shock to the Shona Society Scenario One Scenario Two Scenario Three Scenario Four Chihera While She Is a Loving and Caring Wife, She Is Not a Prisoner in a Marriage Relationship Chihera Is a Force to Reckon with and She Occupies Her Space Scenario Five Scenario Six Chihera Is a Flexible Role Player Who Defies Cultural Restrictions Scenario Seven Scenario Eight Scenario Nine Chihera Quickly Moves Out of Denial, She Accepts Reality and Moves On Scenario Ten Learning Points and Recommendations for Further Studies Concluding Analysis References Part IV: Chihera Prototype Navigating the Zimbabwean Genderised Economic Sector Chapter 14: “If only it wasn’t for me” Chihera as Head of the Family in a Time of Economic Crisis Introduction Chihera in Context Economic Opportunities and Challenges for Women in Zimbabwe Chihera’s Responses to Economic Challenges Conclusion References Chapter 15: Patriarchy and Disability: A Culture of Ubuntu, African Women with Disabilities and Sustainable Livelihoods in Matetsi Community, Zimbabwe Introduction Patriarchy and Disability Livelihood Assets, Ubuntu and Women with Disabilities Ubuntu and Disabilities Households Headed by Women with Disabilities in Matetsi A Half-Glass Full Approach: Reinterpreting Livelihoods by Rural Women with Disabilities Profiling the Livelihood Assets that Women with Disabilities Have in Matetsi Social Capital Financial Capital Human Capital Physical Capital Natural Capital The Agency of Rural Women with Disabilities and a Culture of ubuntu Conclusion References Part V: Confounding Chihera: Patriarchy Fights Back Chapter 16: The Chihera Mystique in Selected Writings by African Women Theologians Introduction Conceptualization of Chihera Representation of Chihera in Social Media Talkative and Speaks Out Unfeminine Actions Chihera’s Attributes Exuded by African Women’s Theology An Overview Demand for Inclusion Reading Scriptures to Empower Women A Critique of African Culture Conclusion References Chapter 17: Chihera as a Game Changer in the African Churches’ Masculine Leadership Hierarchy: A Case Study of the Apostolic Faith Mission in Zimbabwe Introduction The History of the Apostolic Faith Mission in Zimbabwe The Zimbabwean Pentecostal Gender Ideology Women in Africa Before Colonialism The Colonial Period and Beyond The Mother Amongst the Shona Theoretical Framework Findings and Discussion What Is Expected of a “Chihera” in the Christian Home? Having Talks and Bible Studies on Empowerment Division of Household Chores Exposing All Children to the Same Education Fighting Against Patriarchy Raising a Boy Child Who Is Not Challenged by a Powerful Woman Involving Both the Girl Child and Boys in Decision Making Conclusion References Chapter 18: Chihera’s Matriarchal Traits: A Mirror of Reverse Patriarchy Introduction The Synopsis of Domestic Violence in Zimbabwe The Characterisation of Chihera Women Chihera Women and the Reverse Patriarchy Motif The Causes of Chihera’s Violence Against Men Chihera and Forms of Abuses Physical Abuse/Violence Sexual Violence Emotional and Psychological Violence Financial Abuse Conclusion References Chapter 19: Implications of Consolidating Patriarchy Through Exploitation of “Better” Ways of Conveying Disagreeable Practices to Chihera, the Epitome of Empowered Women in Zimbabwe Introduction The Notion of Patriarchy Motivation as a Concept Skinner’s “Reinforcement Theory of Motivation” Methodology “Better” Ways of Conveying Disagreeable Practices Through Reinforcement Approaches Conclusion and Recommendations References Index