Building Climate Resilience in Agriculture: Theory, Practice and Future Perspective

Description

This volume discusses the need to adopt Climate-Resilient Agriculture (CRA) practices to address the increasing global impact that climate change has on agricultural productivity and agriculture-dependent communities. This approach applies technological, policy and economic measures to achieve sustainable agricultural growth in the sectors of grain, fruit, vegetable, fiber, feed, livestock, fisheries and forestry, with the ultimate goal of adapting and building resilience to climate change. The book also uses GIS, crop modeling and remote sensing techniques for future climate resilience applications in agriculture, and covers pest control measures that avoid the use of pesticides to boost crop and livestock productivity for improved food security. The book will be of interest to researchers and students in environmental science, climate science, sustainability and agriculture, as well as policy makers and environmental organizations.  Preface Acknowledgments Contents Contributors Part I: Basic Concepts of Climate Resilience for Agriculture and Associated Fields Chapter 1: An Introduction to Climate Change Phenomenon 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming 1.3 Ozone Depletion and Climate Change 1.4 Effect of Automobiles on Climate Change 1.5 Effects of Deforestation on Climate Change 1.6 Climate Change and Urbanization 1.7 Human Influence 1.8 Role of the Sun 1.9 El Niño 1.10 Conclusion References Chapter 2: Agro-meteorological Aspect of Climate Change 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Scope of Agrometeorology 2.3 Evidences of Climate Change and Consequent Impacts on Crop Production 2.4 Conclusion References Chapter 3: Impact of Temperature Fluctuations on Plant Morphological and Physiological Traits 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Plant Physiological Responses to Temperature Fluctuations 3.2.1 Photosynthesis 3.2.2 Cell Membranes Abnormalities 3.2.3 Reactive Nitrogen Species (RNS) 3.2.4 Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) 3.2.5 Chlorophyll a Fluorescence 3.2.6 Sugars as Antioxidants 3.2.7 Temperature and Maize Growth 3.3 Plant Adaptive Mechanisms and Physiological Responses to Temperature Changes 3.3.1 Phenotypic Plasticity of Physiological Processes 3.3.2 Evolutionary Adaptation 3.3.3 Genetic Transformation 3.3.4 Cellular Alterations at Membranes Level 3.3.5 Synthesis of Heat Shock Proteins (HSPs) 3.3.6 Synthesis of Secondary Metabolites 3.3.7 Osmotic Adjustments 3.3.8 Complex Signaling to Trigger Thermal Responses 3.3.9 Phosphatidic Acid Accumulation 3.3.10 Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) Regulation 3.3.11 Cold Responsive Genes Activation 3.3.12 Cold Tolerance Acquisition 3.4 Conclusion References Chapter 4: Infirmity to Climate Change and Regional Impacts 4.1 Temperature 4.1.1 Understanding the Role of Temperature in Climate Change 4.1.1.1 Ocean Temperature 4.1.1.2 Continent Temperature 4.1.1.3 Global Temperature 4.1.1.4 How Do Scientists Measure Global Temperature? 4.2 Water 4.2.1 Understanding Role of Water in Climate Change 4.2.2 Water and Climate Change 4.2.3 How Do Scientists Measure Water Impact on Climate Change? 4.2.3.1 How Heat Moves 4.2.3.2 Measuring Ocean Heat 4.2.4 Understanding Role of Agriculture and Food Security in Climate Change 4.2.5 Food Security and Agriculture Role in Climate Change 4.3 Extreme Events 4.3.1 Understanding Role of Extreme Events in Climate Change 4.3.2 Examples of Some Extreme Events 4.3.2.1 Heat and Drought 4.3.2.2 Storms and Floods 4.3.2.3 Snow and Frigid Weather 4.3.2.4 Extreme Events and Climate Change 4.4 Healthcare 4.4.1 Healthcare and Climate Change 4.5 Coastal Zones 4.5.1 Understanding Role of Coastal Zones in Climate Change 4.5.2 Coastal Zones and Climate Change 4.6 Ecosystem and Climate Change 4.7 Conclusion References Chapter 5: Climate Resilience in Agriculture 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Climate Change and Its Impact on Rural Economy 5.3 Farmers Perception About Climate Change 5.4 Approaches for Climate Resilient Agriculture 5.4.1 Physiological Approaches for Climate Resilience Agriculture 5.4.1.1 Physiological Traits 5.4.1.2 Mitigation Strategies 5.4.1.3 Adaptation Strategies Increasing Crop Diversity and Develop New Crops Tolerant to Biotic and Abiotic Stress Use of Crop Models in Making Decisions and Predictions Adoption of Remote Sensing and Precision Agriculture 5.4.1.4 Integrated Approach for Climate Resilience in Problem Soils 5.5 Conclusion References Chapter 6: Field Crops and Climate Change 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Crop Response to Global Change 6.3 Impact on Phenology Change 6.4 Temperature Increase and Crop Yield 6.5 Climate and Increased CO2 and O3 Levels 6.6 Changes in Precipitation Regimes 6.7 Crop Type and Response to Global Change 6.8 Impact on Pest Infestation 6.9 Conclusion References Chapter 7: Horticultural Crops as Affected by Climate Change 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Elements of Climate Change Affecting Horticultural Crops 7.2.1 Temperature 7.2.2 Carbon Dioxide CO2 7.2.3 Ozone and UV Radiation 7.3 Climate Change and Physiological Processes 7.4 Impact of Climate Change on Fruits 7.4.1 Temperate Fruits 7.4.2 Tropical Fruits 7.4.3 Subtropical Fruits 7.5 Climate Change and Indices of Diseases and Pests in Horticultural Crops 7.6 Impacts of Climate Change on Postharvest Quality of Fruits and Vegetables 7.7 Conclusion and Future Prospects References Chapter 8: Changing Climate Impacts on Forest Resources 8.1 Introduction and Background 8.1.1 Climate Change 8.1.2 Forestry 8.1.3 Forest Biome 8.1.3.1 Tropical Forest 8.1.3.2 Temperate Forest 8.1.3.3 Boreal Forest (Taiga) 8.2 Climate Change Effects 8.2.1 Climate Change Effect on Plant Biodiversity 8.2.2 Climate Change Impact on Biomass Production 8.2.3 Climate Change Impacts the Economy 8.2.4 Climate Change Impact on Pollination 8.2.5 Climate Change Impact on Livelihood 8.3 Indicators of Effects of Climate Change 8.3.1 Timberline Shift 8.3.2 Change in Forest Cover 8.3.3 Forest Composition 8.3.4 Forest Out turn 8.3.5 Growing Seasons 8.3.6 Plant Phenology 8.3.7 Adaptivity of Alien Species 8.3.8 Stunted Growth of Native Species 8.3.9 Insect/Pest Occurrence 8.4 Conclusion References Chapter 9: Climate Change a Great Threat to Fisheries 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Factors (Related to Climate Change) Affecting Fisheries 9.2.1 Temperature 9.2.2 Oxygen Fluctuation 9.2.3 Net Primary Productivity (NPP) 9.2.4 Ecosystems Alteration 9.2.5 Food Availability 9.2.6 Predation 9.2.7 Mass Movement 9.2.8 Diseases Distribution 9.2.9 Rise in Ocean Level 9.3 Impacts on Culture 9.4 Impacts on Economics and Community 9.5 Conclusion References Part II: Management of Biotic and Abiotic Stresses in Agriculture Under Changing Climate Chapter 10: Water Resources in Relation to Climate Change 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Temperature Behavior 10.3 Global Precipitation Behavior 10.4 Drought Conditions and Wet Spells 10.5 Impact of Climate Change on Runoff Change 10.6 Impact of Climate Change on Potential Evapotranspiration (PET) 10.7 Impact of Climate Change on Soil Moisture (SM) Change 10.8 Groundwater 10.8.1 Climate Change Impact in Relation to GW Abstraction 10.8.2 Intrinsic Effect of Climatic Variation on GW Recharge 10.8.3 Climate Change Impact on GW Quality 10.9 Conclusion References Chapter 11: Water Management in Era of Climate Change 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Integrated Perspectives for Water Managements Under Climatic Change 11.2.1 Transboundary Water Management 11.2.2 Nexus Attentions for Water Managements 11.3 Water and Ecosystems 11.4 Water and Energy 11.5 Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene 11.6 Water and Agriculture 11.7 Saving Water Technologies Approach 11.7.1 Irrigation Water as Safe Sources of Drinking Water 11.7.2 Improvement in the Water Management System Efficiency 11.7.3 Groundwater Management 11.7.4 Water Harvesting Technique 11.7.5 Managing Water Wastage by Using Pipelines 11.7.6 Creating Natural Pressure in Open Channels of Irrigation 11.8 Conclusion References Chapter 12: Climate Change-Induced Irrigation Water Problems and Resolution Strategies: A Case Study 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Pakistan Location in Asia: Vulnerable to Water Resources Scarcity 12.3 Magnitude of the Problem 12.4 Water Management Strategies to Cope with Changing Climate 12.4.1 Overview of On-Farm Water Management Department 12.4.1.1 Functions of the Department 12.4.1.2 Impacts of OFWM Projects 12.4.2 Adaptation and Mitigation Strategies 12.4.3 Role of PSMD 12.4.4 Role of Irrigation Scheduling 12.4.5 Role of Crop Growth Modeling 12.5 Future Water Needs of Pakistan and High-Level Recommendations 12.6 Future Needs 12.7 Conclusion References Chapter 13: Morphological, Physiological, and Biochemical Modulations in Crops under Salt Stress 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Morphological Responses to Salt Stress 13.3 Limitations in Seed Germination, Survival %, and Growth Rate under Salt Stress 13.4 Physiological Responses to Salinity Stress 13.5 Cellular Responses to Salt Stress 13.6 Salinity-Induced Ion Toxicity and Nutrient Imbalance 13.7 Potassium/Calcium Ions 13.8 Magnesium, Nitrogen, and Nitrate Ions 13.9 Micronutrients 13.10 Toxic Ions Inclusion and Exclusion Mechanism Under Salinity Stress 13.11 Salinity and Biochemical Attributes 13.11.1 Leaf Pigments 13.11.2 Sugars, Protein, and Lipid 13.11.3 Osmoprotectants 13.11.4 Glycinebetaine 13.12 Free Amino Acids, Total Soluble Proteins, and Proline 13.12.1 Polyamines 13.13 Summary and Future Research Prospects References Chapter 14: Weed Management and Climate Change 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Response of Weeds to Increasing CO2 14.3 Response of Weeds to Increasing Temperature 14.4 Response of Weeds to Increasing Rainfall and Drought 14.5 Climate Change and Crop-Weed Competition 14.6 Herbicide–Climate Interactions 14.7 Effects of Elevated CO2 and High Temperature on Herbicides 14.8 Effects of Solar Radiation on Herbicides 14.9 Influence of Precipitation and Relative Humidity on Herbicides Efficacy 14.10 Nonchemical Weed Control Options Under Climate Change 14.11 Conclusion References Chapter 15: Insect Pest Management Under Climate Change 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Effects of Climate Change on Insect/Pest 15.2.1 Climate Change Scenario and Pest Outbreak 15.3 Insect Pest Management to Mitigate the Effects of Climate Change 15.3.1 General Principles of IPM 15.3.2 IPM Practices 15.4 Implementation of IPM Program 15.5 Conclusion and Recommendations References Part III: Socio-Economic and Biophysical Research Chapter 16: Effects of Climate Change on the Socioeconomic Conditions of Farmers: A Case Study 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Data Sources 16.3 Vulnerability and Threats to Livelihood of Rural Population 16.4 Perception and Adaptation to Climate Change Among Farming Community 16.5 Consistencies of the Findings with Prior Expectations 16.6 Conclusion and Future Research References Chapter 17: Research on Climate Change Issues 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Climate Change and Agriculture 17.3 Impacts of Climate Change on Agriculture of Different Regions 17.3.1 Europe 17.3.2 Asia 17.4 Current Issues in Climate Change and Agriculure-Related Research 17.4.1 Increase in CO2 17.4.2 Increase in Temperature 17.4.3 Rainfall 17.4.4 Drought 17.4.5 Cold Stress 17.5 Impacts of Climate Change on Major Crops 17.5.1 Cotton 17.5.2 Wheat 17.5.3 Maize 17.5.4 Rice 17.6 Mitigation and Adaptation to Deal with Climate Change Issues References Chapter 18: Role of Modeling in Assessing Climate Change 18.1 Introduction 18.1.1 Climate Change and Food Security 18.1.2 Evidences for Global Change in Climate 18.2 History of Modeling 18.2.1 Climate Modeling 18.2.1.1 Conceptual Models 18.2.1.2 Analog Models 18.2.1.3 Energy Balance and Radiative–Convective Models 18.3 Agriculture Production System Modeling (APSIM) 18.4 Climate Models and Climate Change Scenarios 18.4.1 Climate Change Assessment 18.4.2 Climate Change Scenarios 18.5 Crop Modeling and Climate Change Impact Assessment 18.6 Models for Cereals and Their Interpretations 18.6.1 Significant Impact of Models on Climate 18.6.2 Model and Uncertainty of Climate 18.6.3 Models for Rice Production and Climate Assessment 18.6.3.1 Effect of Various Rice Models on Climate 18.6.4 Climatic Models for Maize 18.7 Models for Non-cereal Crops 18.7.1 Sugarcane Models Interpretation 18.7.2 Models Used for Cotton 18.8 Horticultural Crops and Models 18.8.1 Model Simulations for Potato 18.9 Hydrological Modeling and Climate Assessment 18.9.1 Lake Modeling 18.9.2 Types of Hydrological Models 18.9.2.1 Empirical Models (Metric Model) 18.9.2.2 Conceptual Methods (Parametric Models) 18.9.2.3 Idealized Physical Model 18.10 Rainfall Pattern Models 18.10.1 GLMMs (Generalized Linear Mixed Models) 18.10.2 HMM Models 18.10.3 Nonparametric Models 18.10.4 Semi-parametric Models 18.10.5 Mechanistic Models 18.11 Changing Climate Raises Earthquake Risk 18.11.1 Climate Change Connection with Earthquake 18.12 Conclusion References Chapter 19: Nutrient Dynamics and the Role of Modeling 19.1 Introduction 19.2 Biogeochemical Models and C, N, P Dynamics 19.2.1 Modeling C Dynamics 19.2.2 Modeling N Dynamics 19.2.3 Modeling P Dynamics 19.3 Models as Decision Support Tools 19.4 APSIM and Nutrient Dynamics 19.5 Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) 19.6 Conclusion References Part IV: Innovative Approaches to Achieve Climate Resilience in Agriculture Chapter 20: Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) Technologies 20.1 Background and Introduction 20.2 Why Is Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) Needed? 20.3 Strategies for Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) 20.3.1 Efficient Resource Management 20.3.2 Integrated Renewable Energy Technologies for Farming Perceptions 20.3.3 Soil Management in CSA 20.3.4 Water Management in CSA 20.3.5 Land Use (LU) Management 20.3.6 Crops Genetic Modification 20.3.7 Crop Production and Relocation 20.3.8 Efficient Pest Management (EPM) 20.3.9 GIS Mapping 20.3.10 Forecasting 20.3.11 Crop Modeling 20.3.12 Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) in Livestock 20.3.13 Resource Conserving Technologies (RCTs) 20.3.14 Fisheries and Aquaculture 20.4 Improving Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) 20.4.1 Climate Risk Management Through Water and Land Management 20.4.2 Improving the Resilience of Agriculture 20.4.3 Managing Environmental Risk in Presence of Climate Change (CC) 20.4.4 Role of Institutions for CSA Improvement 20.5 Benefits of CSA Technologies 20.6 Conclusion References Chapter 21: Internet of Things (IoT) and Sensors Technologies in Smart Agriculture: Applications, Opportunities, and Current Trends 21.1 Introduction 21.2 IoT System 21.2.1 IoT Platforms, Standards, and Protocols 21.2.2 IoT Networks 21.2.3 Classification of IoT Devices 21.2.4 Trends in IoT Development 21.3 Wireless Technologies in Smart Agriculture 21.3.1 Long Range Radio (LoRa) 21.3.2 SigFox Protocol 21.3.3 ZigBee Protocol 21.3.4 4G/3G/GPRS 21.3.5 Wi-Fi 21.3.6 GPS and Bluetooth (BT) 21.3.7 Crop Simulation Modeling 21.3.8 Remote Sensing 21.3.9 UAVs (Un-manned Aerial Vehicles) and Drones 21.4 Potential Applications, Opportunities, and Current Usage Trends of IoT System in Agriculture 21.4.1 Weather Forecasting 21.4.2 Pest Control 21.4.3 On-farm Water Management 21.4.4 Greenhouse Management 21.4.5 Forest Management 21.4.6 Pollution Detection 21.4.7 Livestock Monitoring 21.4.8 Marketing 21.5 Scope and Future of IoT 21.6 Benefits of IoT Technology in Agriculture 21.7 Challenges in Wireless Technologies 21.7.1 Communication Range 21.7.2 Cost 21.7.3 Power Consumption 21.7.4 Reliability 21.7.5 Real-Time Data 21.7.6 Fault Tolerance 21.8 Conclusion References Chapter 22: World Nations Priorities on Climate Change and Food Security 22.1 Introduction 22.2 Food Security 22.2.1 Pillars of Food Security 22.2.2 Food Security Challenges 22.3 Relationships Between Food Security and Climate Change 22.4 Food Insecurity Level Across the Regions of the World 22.5 Nations at Risk and Priorities to Manage the Risk 22.5.1 South and Central Asia 22.6 Steps to be Taken by Local Government to Ensure Food Security 22.7 Role of Research and Technologies to Ensure Food Security 22.8 Recommendations and Future Needs for Meeting the Challenges 22.9 Conclusion References Chapter 23: Importance of Carbon Sequestration in the Context of Climate Change 23.1 Introduction 23.2 Soil C Pools 23.3 Definition of C Sequestration 23.4 Carbon Sequestration, Soil Health, and Food Security 23.5 Measurement of Soil C Change Over Time 23.6 Impact of Climate on C Sequestration 23.7 Soil C Pool Management 23.8 Biochar Role in C Sequestration 23.9 Role of Conservation Tillage in C Sequestration 23.9.1 Biomass Production 23.9.2 Cover Crop 23.9.3 Agroforestry 23.9.4 Deep-Rooted Crop 23.9.5 Improvement of Pastures 23.9.6 Residue Management 23.9.7 Fertilizer Application 23.9.8 Crop Rotation 23.10 Conclusion References Index