Agricultural Waste: Environmental Impact, Useful Metabolites and Energy Production

Description

This contributed volume deals with problems associated with huge biomass generated by crop plants and the processing of fruits and food materials. The main focus is to address problems associated with organic residues from agro-industrial processes. This book aims to provide a comprehensive and up-to-date account of various processes involved in the valorization of this huge biomass available from agro-industrial processes and obtaining valuable primary and secondary metabolites which will have an impact on the rural economy. Decrease in forest cover associated with the production of agriculture-based waste resulting in pollutants like smoke by burning of residual crops, waste from breweries, food processing, pruning of bushes and trees, and from industries producing proteins, vegetable oils and fruit juices etc. This book is of interest to teachers, researchers, climate change scientists, agriculture scientists and policymakers. The book brings out the latest reading material for botanists, biotechnologists, environmentalists, biologists, policymakers and NGOs working for environmental protection. Preface Contents Part I: Agricultural Waste: Environmental Sustainability Chapter 1: Disposal of Agricultural Waste and Its Effects on the Environment, Production of Useful Metabolites and Energy: Pot... 1.1 Introduction 1.1.1 Population Growth and Demand for Food 1.1.2 Impact on Global Warming 1.1.3 Problems of Management of Residue 1.2 Agroindustrial and Food Waste and By-Products 1.3 Value-Added Products 1.4 Valorization of Agroindustrial Waste 1.4.1 Various Useful Primary Metabolites Obtained and Processes 1.4.2 Various Bioactive Secondary Metabolites Obtained 1.4.3 Composting of Agrifood Wastes 1.4.4 Renewable Energy Production 1.4.5 Nanotechnology: An Advance Tool 1.5 Conclusions, Prospects and Challenges References Chapter 2: Utilizing Agricultural Waste in Production of Biochar for Improving Soil Properties and Increasing Crop Yield Throu... 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Biochar Production 2.2.1 BioCharan: An On-Site Method of Biochar Production 2.2.2 Soil Preparation and Experimental Setup 2.2.3 Biochar Characterization 2.2.3.1 Physicochemical Characteristics and Particle Size Distribution 2.2.3.2 Elemental Analysis 2.2.3.3 FTIR Spectroscopic and SEM Analysis 2.2.3.4 XRD Analysis 2.2.3.5 Physicochemical and Geotechnical Properties 2.3 Effect of Biochar on Soil Properties 2.4 Effect of Biochar on Crop Yield 2.5 Conclusions References Part II: Processes for Value Addition to Agricultural Waste Chapter 3: Value-Added Products from Agricultural Wastes: Pectins from Cocoa Husk, Coffee Pulp, Soybean Hulls and Grape Pomace 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Plant Cell Wall 3.3 Pectin 3.4 Cocoa Pod Husk 3.4.1 Composition and Uses of Cacao Pod Husk 3.4.2 Potential of Cocoa Pod Husk as Source of Pectins 3.5 Coffee Pulp 3.5.1 Coffee Processing and Wastes 3.5.2 Composition and Uses of Coffee Pulp 3.5.3 Potential of Coffee Pulp as a Source of Pectins 3.6 Soybean Hull 3.6.1 Soybean Processing and By-Products 3.6.2 Composition and Uses of Soy Hull 3.6.3 Soy Hull as a Source of Pectin 3.7 Grape Pomace 3.7.1 Winemaking Process and Grape Pomace Waste 3.7.2 Composition and Uses of Grape Pomace 3.7.3 Dietary Fibres from Grape Pomace 3.7.4 The Potential of Grape Pomace as Source of Pectins 3.8 Conclusions References Chapter 4: Biomaterials Derived from Agricultural Waste: A Focus on Collagen 4.1 Introduction 4.2 The Effect of Tannery Waste Materials on the Environment 4.2.1 The Use of Bovine and Cattle Hides for Collagen Extraction 4.3 Extraction Methodologies of Collagen from Agricultural Waste 4.3.1 Types of Collagen Found in the Mammalian Body 4.3.2 Collagen Extraction from Bovine Hides 4.3.3 Bovine Hide Properties 4.3.4 Monitoring of Temperature 4.3.5 Demineralisation and Defatting Steps 4.3.6 Elimination of Other Proteins: Non-collagenous Proteins 4.3.7 Salting-Out Extraction 4.3.8 Alkali-Treated Sample Methods 4.3.9 Alkali and Enzyme Method 4.3.10 Alkali-Acid Extraction 4.3.11 Acid Solubilisation of Collagen 4.3.12 The Enzyme Method 4.3.13 Acid-Enzyme Solubilisation 4.4 Biomaterials and Applications of Collagen Derived from Bovine Waste 4.4.1 Collagen-Derived Films 4.4.2 Collagen-Derived Sponges 4.4.3 Collagen-Derived Corneal Shields 4.4.4 Collagen for Skin Replacement and as Bone Substitutes 4.4.5 Collagen in 3D Printing Applications 4.4.6 Collagen in Cosmetics 4.5 Conclusions References Chapter 5: Valorization of Agricultural Lignocellulosic Plant Byproducts Following Biorefinery Approach Toward Circular Bioeco... 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Lignocellulosic Biomass Composition 5.2.1 Cellulose 5.2.1.1 Traditional Pretreatment Techniques 5.2.1.2 Novel/Emerging Pretreatment Techniques 5.2.2 Hemicellulose 5.2.2.1 Hemicellulose Extraction 5.2.2.2 Hemicellulose Application 5.2.3 Lignin 5.2.3.1 Lignin Extraction Methods 5.2.3.2 Lignin Applications 5.3 Future Perspectives 5.4 Conclusions and Final Remarks References Chapter 6: Bioactive Peptides from Protein-Rich Waste 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Waste Generation 6.2.1 Waste: Vegetal and Animal Origin 6.3 Protein and Peptide Production from Waste 6.3.1 Traditional Hydrolysis Process Applied to Obtain Bioactive Peptides 6.3.1.1 Chemical Hydrolysis 6.3.1.2 Enzymatic Hydrolysis 6.3.1.3 Microbial Hydrolysis 6.3.2 Refining Techniques Applied to Bioactive Peptides from Protein-Rich Wastes 6.4 Technological Properties of Peptides from Protein-Rich Waste 6.5 Biological Properties of Peptides from Protein-Rich Waste 6.6 Conclusion References Chapter 7: Biopolymers in Sugarcane Vinasse Treatment and Valorization 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Ethanol Production 7.3 Sugarcane Vinasse 7.4 Physicochemical Characteristics of Sugarcane Vinasse 7.5 Use of Biopolymers in Sugarcane Vinasse Treatment and Valorization 7.5.1 Microalgae Immobilization in Biopolymeric Matrices for Vinasse Treatment and Biomass Accumulation 7.5.2 Slow-Release Biodegradable Fertilizers Based on Biopolymers and Vinasse 7.5.3 Biodegradable Mulching Films Enriched with Vinasse 7.6 Final Remarks References Chapter 8: Valorization of Guava Fruit By-Products 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Guava By-Products 8.3 Physicochemical Composition 8.4 Bioactive Compounds 8.4.1 Flavonoids 8.4.2 Condensed Tannins 8.5 Bioactive Compounds Identified in Guava By-Products 8.6 Utilization of Guava By-Products 8.6.1 Antioxidant Dietary Fiber 8.6.2 Beneficial Health Effects Related to the Consumption of Guava By-Products 8.6.3 Incorporation in Food 8.6.4 Obtaining Pectin 8.6.5 Energy Production 8.7 Conclusions References Chapter 9: Valorization of Coffee By-Products: An Overview 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Coffee Description 9.3 Coffee Botany 9.3.1 Coffea arabica 9.3.2 Coffea canephora 9.4 Coffee Production in the World 9.4.1 Coffee Market 9.5 Processing of Coffee Pulp 9.6 Bioactive Compounds 9.6.1 Polyphenols 9.6.2 Flavonoids 9.6.3 Tannins 9.6.4 Procyanidins 9.7 Use of Coffee Waste 9.8 Conclusions 9.9 Final Comments References Chapter 10: Valorization of Tomato Fruit Processing Residues 10.1 Introduction 10.1.1 Tomato Fruit 10.1.1.1 Generalities 10.1.1.2 Structure of the Fruit 10.1.1.3 General Composition 10.1.1.4 Composition of Ripe Fruit 10.1.1.5 Starch 10.1.1.6 Sugars 10.1.1.7 Organic Acids 10.1.1.8 Volatile Compounds 10.1.1.9 Pigments 10.1.1.10 Lipids 10.1.2 Worldwide Production of Tomato Fruit and By-Products 10.2 By-Products of Tomato Processing 10.2.1 Shells and Skins 10.2.2 Seeds 10.2.3 Pulp, Paste, Puree 10.3 Methods for the Recovery of Bioactive Compounds 10.3.1 Technologies for Extraction and Recovery 10.3.1.1 Pulsed Electric Field 10.3.1.2 Enzymatic Extraction 10.3.1.3 Supercritical Fluid Extraction (SFE) 10.3.1.4 Microwave-Assisted Extraction (MAE) 10.3.1.5 Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction (UAE) 10.3.1.6 Solid-State Fermentation Assisted Extraction (SSFAE) 10.3.2 Bioactive Compounds 10.4 Conclusions References Chapter 11: Sustainable Utilization of Tea Waste 11.1 Introduction 11.1.1 Current Scenario of Tea and Tea Waste Production 11.1.2 Composition of Tea and Tea Waste 11.2 Extraction of Bioactive Antioxidant Compounds from Waste Tea 11.3 Application of Tea Waste and Tea Waste-Derived Value-Added Products in the Environmental Sector 11.3.1 Production of Porous Activated Carbon and Biochar 11.3.2 Wastewater Treatment by Tea Waste-Derived Adsorbents 11.3.2.1 Removal of Dyes 11.3.2.2 Removal of Heavy Metals 11.3.2.3 Removal of Pharmaceutical and Other Contaminants 11.3.3 Purification of Drinking Water 11.3.4 Remediation of Air and Soil 11.4 Application of Tea Wastes for the Generation of Bio-Energy 11.4.1 Gaseous Biofuel 11.4.2 Liquid Biofuel 11.5 Other Utilization of Tea Wastes 11.6 Conclusions References Part III: Bioactive Metabolites from Agricultural Waste Chapter 12: Vitis Wastes as a Source of Stilbenes: Natural Occurrence, Factors Affecting Biosynthesis, and Valorization in Agr... 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Vine Wastes: Canes 12.2.1 Stilbene Composition in Grapevine Canes 12.2.2 Factors Modulating Stilbene Biosynthesis in Canes 12.2.2.1 Genetic Factors 12.2.2.2 Environmental Factors 12.2.2.3 External Factors (Human Management) 12.2.3 Application of Cane Biomass in Agri-Food Industry 12.2.3.1 Agriculture 12.2.3.2 Oenology 12.2.3.3 Medicine 12.2.3.4 Food 12.2.3.5 Cosmetics 12.3 Vine Wastes: Stems 12.3.1 Stilbene Composition in Grapevine Stems 12.3.2 Factors Modulating Stilbene Biosynthesis in Stems 12.3.2.1 Genetic Factors 12.3.2.2 Environmental Factors 12.3.2.3 External Factors (Human Management) 12.3.3 Application of Stem Biomass in Agri-Food Industry 12.3.3.1 Oenology 12.3.3.2 Medicine 12.3.3.3 Food 12.3.3.4 Cosmetics 12.4 Vine Wastes: Leaves 12.4.1 Stilbene Composition in Grapevine Leaves 12.4.2 Factors Modulating Stilbene Biosynthesis in Leaves 12.4.2.1 Genetic Factors 12.4.2.2 Environmental Factors 12.4.2.3 External Factors (Human Management) 12.4.3 Application of Leaves Biomass in Agri-Food Industry 12.4.3.1 Food 12.4.3.2 Medicine 12.5 Vine Wastes: Trunk 12.5.1 Stilbene Composition in Grapevine Trunks 12.5.2 Factors Modulating Stilbene Biosynthesis in Trunks 12.5.2.1 Genetic Factor 12.5.2.2 Environmental Factors 12.5.3 Application of Trunk Biomass in Agri-Food Industry 12.5.3.1 Agriculture 12.6 Vine Wastes: Roots 12.6.1 Stilbene Composition in Grapevine Roots 12.6.2 Factors Modulating Stilbene Biosynthesis in Roots 12.6.2.1 Genetic Factor 12.6.2.2 Environmental Factors 12.6.2.3 External Factors (Human Management) 12.6.3 Application of Root Biomass in Agri-Food Industry 12.6.3.1 Agriculture 12.6.3.2 Medicine 12.7 Conclusions and Perspectives References Chapter 13: Useful Bioactive Compounds from Olive Tree By-Products (Leaves, Branches, Fruits) 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Biophenol Compounds 13.2.1 Phenolic Acids 13.2.2 Phenolic Alcohols 13.2.3 Flavonoids 13.2.4 Secoiridoids 13.2.5 Lignans 13.3 Triterpenoids 13.4 Phytosterols 13.5 Tocopherols 13.6 Fatty Acids 13.7 The Macromolecules 13.7.1 Definition 13.7.1.1 Cellulose 13.7.1.2 Hemicellulose 13.7.1.3 Lignin 13.7.2 Application 13.8 Conclusion References Chapter 14: Fruit Pomaces as Valuable By-Products of Wine and Cider Industries 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Pomace Structure 14.2.1 Grape Pomace Structure 14.2.2 Apple Pomace Structure 14.3 Chemical and Nutritional Composition 14.3.1 Carbohydrates 14.3.2 Proteins 14.3.3 Fatty Acids 14.3.4 Phenolic Compounds 14.3.5 Dietary Fibers 14.3.6 Organic Acids 14.3.7 Amino Acids 14.3.8 Vitamins 14.3.9 Minerals 14.4 Extraction Methods of Pomace Bioactive Compounds 14.4.1 Ultrasound 14.4.2 Microwave 14.4.3 Pulsed Electric Field (PEF) 14.4.4 Thermal Treatment 14.4.5 Enzymatic Treatment 14.4.6 Pressurized Liquid Extraction 14.4.7 Sub-/Supercritical Fluid Extraction References Chapter 15: Secondary Metabolites and Antioxidant Activity of the Solid-State Fermentation in Fruit Waste/Bagasse 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Solid-State Fermentation 15.3 Production of Microbial Secondary Metabolites of Biological Interest by FES 15.4 Methods of Extraction of Secondary Metabolites of the Solid-State Fermentation in Fruit Waste 15.5 Health 15.6 Alimentation 15.7 Functional Foods 15.8 Conclusions References Chapter 16: Green Extraction Techniques Applied to Recover Chemical Compounds from Olive-Derived Biomasses 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Extractive Fraction of Olive-Derived Biomasses and Extractable Bioactive Compounds 16.3 Green Extraction Technologies Applied to Recover Bioactive Compounds from Olive-Derived Biomasses: General Aspects 16.4 Theory and Application of Green Technologies to Extract Bioactive Compounds from Olive-Derived Biomasses 16.4.1 Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction 16.4.2 Microwave-Assisted Extraction 16.4.3 Supercritical CO2 Extraction 16.4.4 Pressurized Liquid Extraction 16.4.5 Electro-Based Extraction 16.4.6 Examples of Application 16.5 Large-Scale Extraction 16.6 Conclusions References Chapter 17: Production and Use of Hydrolates from the Distillation Process of Aromatic Plants 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Hydrolate Production 17.3 Lavender Hydrolate 17.4 Thyme Hydrolate 17.5 Oregano Hydrolate 17.6 Savory Hydrolate 17.7 Mint Hydrolate 17.8 Sage Hydrolate 17.9 Rosemary Hydrolate 17.10 Rose Hydrolate 17.11 Citrus Hydrolate 17.12 Bay Laurel Hydrolate 17.13 Conclusion References Chapter 18: From Agricultural Waste to Functional Food Products: An Overview 18.1 Introduction 18.2 Concept of Circular Bioeconomy in Functional Food Creation Based on Agricultural Waste Compounds 18.3 Valorization of Plant-Based Agricultural Waste 18.3.1 Fruit Waste 18.3.2 Vegetable Waste 18.3.3 Others 18.4 Agricultural Waste Bioactive Compounds as a Functional Food Ingredient 18.4.1 Bioactive Compounds in Agricultural Waste for Food Applications and Health Benefits 18.4.2 Bioactive Compounds and Dietary Fibres in Agricultural Waste as Potential Prebiotics for Food Applications and Health B... 18.5 Functional Food as a Source of Valuable Waste Compounds 18.5.1 Term `Functional Food´ 18.5.2 Functional Food Products Based on Agricultural Waste Present on the Global Market 18.6 Conclusions References Part IV: Recent Advancements, Energy and Nanomaterials from Agricultural Waste Chapter 19: Recent Advancements in Agricultural Residue Valorisation into Bio-Products 19.1 Introduction 19.2 Chemical Composition of Various Agricultural Residues 19.3 Valorisation of Agricultural Residues into Different Bio-Commodities 19.3.1 Conversion of Wastes into Fuels 19.3.2 Production of Valuable Biomaterials 19.3.2.1 Production of Biopolymers 19.3.2.2 Production of Cellulose Nanofibrils 19.3.2.3 Production of Biofertilisers 19.4 Advancements in Agricultural Residue Valorisation Through Nanotechnology 19.4.1 Cellulose Nanocrystals (CNCs) 19.4.2 Rice Husk-Derived Si Nanomaterials 19.5 Challenges and Future Prospects in Agricultural Residue Valorisation 19.5.1 Recovery of Immobilised Enzyme 19.5.2 Nanotechnology and Enzyme Compassion 19.5.3 Commercialisation of the Implementation 19.5.4 Nanomaterials and Protracted Durability 19.6 Techno-Economic Analysis for Agricultural Residue Valorisation 19.6.1 Economic Metrics 19.7 Conclusion References Chapter 20: Biogas Energy from Animal Waste 20.1 Introduction 20.2 Anaerobic Digestion (AD) Process 20.2.1 Biogas 20.2.2 Biogas Production 20.3 Factors Influencing Biogas Production 20.4 The Methane Yield of Animal Manure-Based Biogas 20.5 Energy Generation from Biogas 20.6 Conclusion References Chapter 21: Recent Trends and Future Prospects of Nanotechnology for Agro-Waste Valorization into Biofuels 21.1 Introduction 21.2 Overview on Agro-Waste Types and Their Compositions 21.3 Recently Enabled Nanomaterials in Biofuel Processes 21.4 Nanotechnological Applications in Biofuel Production from Agro-Wastes 21.4.1 Biodiesel Production 21.4.2 Biohydrogen Production 21.4.3 Bioethanol Production 21.4.4 Biogas Production 21.5 Conclusion and Future Prospective References Index