Spinal Evolution: Morphology, Function, and Pathology of the Spine in Hominoid Evolution

Description

The vertebral spine is a key element of the human anatomy. Its main role is to protect the spinal cord and the main blood vessels. The axial skeleton, with its muscles and joints, provides stability for the attachment of the head, tail and limbs and, at the same time, enables the mobility required for breathing and for locomotion. Despite its great importance, the vertebral spine is often over looked by researchers because: a) vertebrae are fragile in nature, which makes their fossilization a rare event; b) they are metameric (seriated and repeated elements) that make their anatomical determination and, thus, their subsequent study difficult; and c) the plethora of bones and joints involved in every movement or function of the axial skeleton makes the reconstruction of posture, breathing mechanics and locomotion extremely difficult. It is well established that the spine has changed dramatically during human evolution. Spinal curvatures, spinal load transmission, and thoracic shape of bipedal humans are derived among hominoids. Yet, there are many debates as to how and when these changes occurred and to their phylogenetic, functional, and pathological implications. In recent years, renewed interest arose in the axial skeleton. New and exciting finds, mostly from Europe and Africa, as well as new methods for reconstructing the spine, have been introduced to the research community. New methodologies such as Finite Element Analysis, trabecular bone analysis, Geometric Morphometric analysis, and gait analysis have been applied to the spines of primates and humans. These provide a new and refreshing look into the evolution of the spine. Advanced biomechanical research regarding posture, range of motion, stability, and attenuation of the human spine has interesting evolutionary implications. Until now, no book that summarizes the updated research and knowledge regarding spinal evolution in hominoids has been available. The present book explores both these new methodologies and new data, including recent fossil, morphological, biomechanical, and theoretical advances regarding vertebral column evolution. In order to cover all of that data, we divide the book into four parts: 1) the spine of hominoids; 2) the vertebral spine of extinct hominins; 3) ontogeny, biomechanics and pathology of the human spine; and 4) new methodologies of spinal research. These parts complement each other and provide a wide and comprehensive examination of spinal evolution. Front Matter ....Pages i-x The Study of the Human Spine and Its Evolution: State of the Art and Future Perspectives (Ella Been, Asier Gómez-Olivencia, Patricia Ann Kramer)....Pages 1-14 The Hominoid Cranial Base in Relation to Posture and Locomotion (Gabrielle A. Russo, E. Christopher Kirk)....Pages 15-34 Vertebral Morphology in Relation to Head Posture and Locomotion I: The Cervical Spine (Thierra K. Nalley, Neysa Grider-Potter)....Pages 35-50 Vertebral Morphology in Hominoids II: The Lumbar Spine (Liza J. Shapiro, Gabrielle A. Russo)....Pages 51-72 Miocene Ape Spinal Morphology: The Evolution of Orthogrady (Masato Nakatsukasa)....Pages 73-96 Numbers of Vertebrae in Hominoid Evolution (Scott A. Williams, Asier Gómez-Olivencia, David R. Pilbeam)....Pages 97-124 The Spine of Australopithecus (Scott A. Williams, Marc R. Meyer)....Pages 125-151 The Spine of Early Pleistocene Homo (Marc R. Meyer, Scott A. Williams)....Pages 153-183 The Spine of Late Homo (Asier Gómez-Olivencia, Ella Been)....Pages 185-211 Spinal Pathologies in Fossil Hominins (Martin Haeusler)....Pages 213-245 The Modern and Fossil Hominoid Spinal Ontogeny (Sandra A. Martelli)....Pages 247-281 The Association Between Spinal Posture and Spinal Biomechanics in Modern Humans: Implications for Extinct Hominins (Ella Been, Jeannie F. Bailey)....Pages 283-299 Spinal Posture and Pathology in Modern Humans (Ella Been, Azaria Simonovich, Leonid Kalichman)....Pages 301-320 Cervical Posture, Pain, and Pathology: Developmental, Evolutionary and Occupational Perspective (David Ezra, Ella Been, Deborah Alperovitch-Najenson, Leonid Kalichman)....Pages 321-339 How to Build a 3D Model of a Fossil Hominin Vertebral Spine Based on Osseous Material (Ella Been, Tatiana Waintraub, Asier Gómez-Olivencia, Leonid Kalichman, Patricia Ann Kramer, Sara Shefi et al.)....Pages 341-359 Geometric Morphometric Studies in the Human Spine (Markus Bastir, Nicole Torres-Tamayo, Carlos A. Palancar, Stephanie Lois-Zlolniski, Daniel García-Martínez, Alberto Riesco-López et al.)....Pages 361-386 Modeling the Spine Using Finite Element Models: Considerations and Cautions (Patricia Ann Kramer, Alexandra G. Hammerberg, Adam D. Sylvester)....Pages 387-400 Back Matter ....Pages 401-407