Physics: The Elements

Description

Norman Robert Campbell (1880–1949) was an English physicist and philosopher who made a significant contribution to the philosophy of science. In this book, which was first published in 1920, Campbell presents a detailed critical analysis of various areas of physics. Aimed at the advanced reader, with a 'familiarity with all the facts and theories of physics, ancient and modern', the text is divided into two main parts: the first part deals with 'The Propositions of Science' and the second discusses aspects of 'Measurement'. An appendix and detailed index are also included. This book will be of value to anyone with an interest in the development of physics and the history of science. Preface Introduction The object of the book Criticism The value of criticism The order of criticism Relation to previous work Science and metaphysics Part One - The Propositions Of Science I The Subject Matter Of Science Science, mathematics and philosophy Science and the material world Selection of material judgements Evidence for an external world The criterion of scientific judgements. Universal assent. Is universal assent obtainable? Is universal agreement possible? Abnormal sensations. Judgements for which universal assent can be obtained Physics and other sciences Is the criterion of universal assent ultimate? If universal agreement failed? II The Nature Of Laws The general nature of laws The complexity of laws Unrecognised laws Concepts. The expression of laws. Defining and non-defining properties All laws are connected Science and logic Definitions III The Nature Of Laws (Contd) Cause and effect Do laws assert cause and effect? Experiments and causes Is cause and effect a relation of thought? Are any laws causal? Processes. The importance of laws The nature of uniformity Uniform association. Is it dual? Uniform association. Is it symmetrical? Uniform association. Is it transitive? Nature of fundamental laws Individual systems The theoretical criterion of laws IV The Discovery And Proof Of Laws Induction The Canons depend on the Law of Causation The consequences of this answer are examined Canons are applied Induction The law of causation The Canons of Induction Separation of instances Do the Canons prove anything? Particular causes How are laws discovered? The nature of experiment Fundamental concepts Howare laws proved? Evidential value of repetition V The Explanation Of Laws What is generality? Are there other kinds of explanation? VI Theories What I do not mean by a theory What I do mean by a theory An example of physical theories The importance of the analogy A theory is not a law The development of theories A digression on the use of certain words The main argument resumed. Another type of theory. Are all "numerical laws" theories? How theories explain laws Conclusions. The value of theories. The value of mathematical theories The value of mechanical theories VII Chance And Probability Chance is the absence of law Probability. The orthodox definition. Probability is experimental Definition of equal probability Some difficulties Probability in general Addition of probabilities Multiplication of probabilities Independent events Criticism of orthodox definition Probability of causes. The problem. Probability of causes. Definition. Probability and knowledge Coincidences The theory of chance. Events and trials. Random distributions Consequences of the theory Applications of the theory. Laws. VIII The Meaning Of Science Two criteria in science Truth and meaning Some historical considerations Science and imagination Science and art IX Science And Philosophy How is science possible? Possible explanations of science These answers are theories The meaning of theories Why are the theories unacceptable? Could such answers be ultimate? Science and Metaphysics Scientific reality Reality is usually theoretical Reality and appearance Metaphysical reality Truth and belief Absolute and relative truth Part Two - Measurement X Fundamental Measurement Measurement is the assignment of numbers Numerals and Numbers Numerals and Order The relation generating order Measurement of hardness Colour cannot be measured The first conditions for measurement Density. Derived magnitudes. Significance of addition Nature of addition Physical addition The principle of measurement The criteria of addition. The First Law. Qualities and quantities The criteria of addition. The Second Law. Addition and equality Is the Second Law necessary? Is the unit the only arbitrary element in measurement? XI Physical Number Is number a magnitude? Enumeration and counting Is counting experimental? Choice of unit Numerals and number Are Numbers required? Multiplication Multiplication as change of unit XII Fractional And Negative Magnitudes Fractional magnitudes The addition of fractional magnitudes Decimal notation Fractional number Negative magnitudes Is fundamental magnitude unique? XIII Numerical Laws And Derived Magnitudes Physical relations expressed by numerical laws Numerical relations of numerical laws Are numerical "laws" theories? The form of a numerical law The variation of "constants" Constants and derived magnitudes Derived and fundamental magnitudes True and empirical laws Graphs The establishment of numerical laws Interpolation and extrapolation Arbitrary and true measurement XIV Units And dimensions Units of fundamental magnitudes Numerical laws and changes of units Formal constants Units of derived magnitudes Dimensions No-dimensional magnitudes Defined magnitudes Basic magnitudes Quasi-derived magnitudes Derived units Example of electric charge The example of volume Basic magnitudes resumed Practical units Natural units XV The Uses Of Dimensions The use of dimensions The "argument from dimensions" Criticism of the argument Physical Similarity The "Principle" of Physical Similarity The use of dimensional argument Does the argument apply only to "basic" magnitudes? The"undetermined constant" Indeterminate dimensional equations Other uses of dimensions Dynamical similarity and graphs XVI Errors Of Measurement: Methodical Errors Failure of the laws of addition and equality Errors of consistency and errors of method Consequences of error The judgement of equality Real magnitudes The theory of measurement Examination of the theory The practice of measurement Have all magnitudes errors? XVII Errors Of Measurement: Errors Of Consistency And The Adjustment of Observations Inconsistent measurements. Complete collections. Errors of consistency are not errors of measurement True magnitudes The object of measurement Re-statement of the problem Rule for finding true magnitudes Systematic error The theory of errors of inconsistency The law of errors of method Proof of the law of errors Incomplete collections The "most probable distribution" of errors The Method of Least Squares Is the Method of Least Squares right? The probable error The weight of observations The adjustment of derived magnitudes An alternative method of adjustment Application of the alternative method The establishment of numerical laws The calibration of the standard series XVIII Mathematical Physics Measurement and mathematics The establishment of numerical laws Numerical laws and mathematical theories Physical derivatives Significance of derivatives Continuity Essential continuity Continuity of functions and magnitudes Continuity and derivatives Appendix Time Space Motion Force Index