Compression Machinery for Oil and Gas

Description

Cover......Page 1 Compression Machinery for Oil and Gas ......Page 3 Copyright......Page 4 Contributors......Page 5 The Editors......Page 7 Preface......Page 9 Acknowledgments......Page 12 Section I: Fundamentals of Compression ......Page 13 Dynamic Compressors......Page 14 Basic Thermodynamics......Page 15 First Law......Page 16 Intercooling......Page 18 Equations of State......Page 19 Basic Machinery Dynamics......Page 20 References......Page 22 Types of Compression Equipment......Page 23 Upstream......Page 25 Downstream......Page 26 Compression Ratio and Maximum Temperatures......Page 28 Gas Type (Sour Gas, Wet Gas, etc.)......Page 29 Emissions, Noise, and Safety......Page 30 Operating and Maintenance Costs......Page 32 Service Life......Page 34 Automated/Manual Controls......Page 35 Packaging Issues......Page 36 References......Page 37 Section II: Types of Equipment ......Page 38 General Requirements for Range, Pressure Ratio, and Performance for Inline Centrifugal Compressors in Various Applications?......Page 39 Elements of an Inline Centrifugal Compressor......Page 40 Horizontal Split......Page 41 Hermetically Sealed......Page 42 Multisection......Page 43 Impeller......Page 45 Diffuser and Return Channel......Page 46 Volute......Page 47 Balance Piston/Division Wall Seal......Page 48 Antiswirl Mechanisms......Page 49 Shaft End......Page 50 Static Seals......Page 53 Shaft......Page 54 Bearings......Page 55 Euler's Equations......Page 58 Operating Regimes of a Centrifugal Compressor......Page 63 Surge......Page 64 Stall......Page 65 Compressor Control......Page 66 Variable Speed......Page 67 Process Control With Centrifugal Compressors Driven by Two-Shaft Gas Turbines......Page 69 Multiple Units......Page 70 Pressure Vessel......Page 71 Lateral Rotordynamics......Page 72 Rotordynamic Modeling and Analysis......Page 73 Torsional Rotordynamics......Page 80 Blade and Disk Vibrations......Page 83 Deflection......Page 86 Hot/Cold Applications, Centerline Mounting......Page 87 Piping/Flange loads......Page 88 Thrust Loads......Page 89 Foundation......Page 96 Dry Gas......Page 98 Wet......Page 104 Liquid Film Seal Oil Supply System......Page 107 Bearing/Lube Oil......Page 108 Interaction With Reciprocating Compressors and Aerodynamic Stability......Page 111 Erosion/Fouling/Plugging of Components and Mitigation Strategies......Page 112 Parallel/Serial......Page 115 Typical Compressor Types and Their Market Space......Page 116 Gas Transmission Compressor......Page 121 Injection......Page 122 LNG......Page 125 Hydrogen Recycle......Page 127 Air/Nitrogen......Page 128 Design for Maintenance......Page 129 Predictive Maintenance......Page 131 Preventive Maintenance......Page 132 Sparing and Availability......Page 133 Principles of Gas Compressor Restage......Page 134 Restage Applications......Page 135 Running Slow......Page 136 Restage Criteria......Page 137 References......Page 138 Further Reading......Page 141 Introduction......Page 142 Advantages......Page 143 Design Speed......Page 144 Intercooling......Page 145 Variable Geometry......Page 146 Size......Page 147 Sealing......Page 148 Design Process......Page 149 Drivers......Page 151 Aerodynamics......Page 152 Flow Control......Page 154 Gears......Page 155 Thrust Management......Page 157 Bearings......Page 158 Lubrication......Page 160 Rotordynamics......Page 161 Casings......Page 163 Mechanical Design......Page 165 Operation......Page 167 Midstream......Page 168 Petrochemical......Page 169 Summary......Page 170 References......Page 171 Further Reading......Page 172 Compressors Without a Crosshead......Page 173 Other Types of Reciprocating Compressors......Page 174 Advantages and Disadvantages Compared to Other Compressors......Page 175 Average Linear Piston Speed......Page 176 Effect of Torque Pulsations......Page 177 Induction Motors......Page 178 Synchronous Motors......Page 179 Torque Pulsation......Page 181 Engines......Page 182 Turbines and Gearboxes......Page 183 Couplings......Page 184 Importance of Pulsation Studies......Page 185 Vibration Concerns......Page 186 Key Guidance From Standards......Page 188 Cylinder Swept Volume Process Overview......Page 189 Types......Page 191 Dynamics......Page 192 System Model......Page 195 Example Calculations......Page 196 Baseline Results......Page 197 Increased Gas Density......Page 199 Changing Piston Velocity......Page 201 Capacity......Page 204 Volumetric Efficiency......Page 206 Power......Page 207 Friction......Page 214 Pulsation Bottle Losses......Page 215 Cylinder Cooling Effects......Page 216 Recycle......Page 217 Head-End Fixed Volume Clearance Pocket......Page 218 Valve Clearance Spacer......Page 220 Finger-Type Suction Valve Unloader......Page 221 Head-End Bypass......Page 223 Pulsation Control......Page 225 Bottle Design......Page 226 Cylinder Orifice Plates......Page 228 Nozzle Pulsation......Page 229 Torsional Rotordynamics......Page 230 Torsional Mass Elastic Models......Page 232 Torsional Stiffening Effect of Induction Motor Webs......Page 235 Steady-State Analysis......Page 239 Allowable Stress Methodology for Torsional Systems......Page 241 Torsional Damping......Page 244 Transient Torsional Analysis......Page 245 Resolution of Typical Torsional Problems......Page 249 Testing Methods for Torsional Systems......Page 251 Reciprocating Compressor Lateral Rotordynamics......Page 255 References......Page 257 Working Principle of Screw Compressors......Page 259 Undercompression......Page 262 Overcompression......Page 263 Comparison of Positive Displacement Machines (Screw Compressor, Reciprocating Compressor) Versus Centrifugal Compressors......Page 264 Dry Screw Compressors......Page 266 Oil-Flooded Screw Compressors......Page 267 Design Features......Page 271 Rotor Design......Page 272 Shaft Ends and Coupling......Page 273 Two-Stage Casing Arrangement......Page 274 Shaft Seals for Dry Screw Compressors......Page 275 Driveshaft Seals for Oil-Flooded Screw Compressors......Page 282 Suction Flow and Power Consumption Versus Compressor Speed......Page 283 Actual Suction Volume Flow Versus Pressure Ratio......Page 285 Power Consumption Versus Discharge Pressure......Page 286 Actual Suction Volume Flow and Power Consumption Versus Molecular Weight for Dry Screw Compressors......Page 288 Actual Suction Volume Flow and Power Consumption Versus Molecular Weight for Oil-Flooded Screw Compressors......Page 289 Power Consumption Versus vi for Oil-Flooded Screw Compressors......Page 290 Starting of Dry Screw Compressors......Page 291 Stopping of Dry Screw Compressors and Settle-Out Pressure......Page 292 Stopping of Flooded Screw Compressors and SOP......Page 293 Injection Above Saturation Temperature......Page 294 Liquid Injection Flows for Dry and Oil-Injected Screw Compressors/Liquid Hammer......Page 295 Design Range for Dry Screws......Page 296 Design Range for Oil-Flooded Screws......Page 307 Lateral Rotordynamics......Page 308 Pulsation and Vibration......Page 310 References......Page 538 Overview of Gas Turbine Components......Page 314 Performance......Page 318 Reciprocating Engines......Page 319 Durability......Page 322 Basic Principles......Page 324 Rotor Circuit Resistance and Motor Torque......Page 329 Reciprocating Compressors......Page 331 Centrifugal Compressors......Page 336 Synchronous Motors......Page 337 Why Use Synchronous Motors?......Page 338 Natural Frequency......Page 339 Induction motor......Page 341 Lateral Pulsation......Page 342 Variable Frequency Drives......Page 343 Steam Turbines......Page 348 Types......Page 349 Application as a Compressor Driver......Page 353 Major components......Page 355 Selection......Page 361 Performance......Page 363 Operation......Page 364 Steam Turbine Maintenance/Reliability......Page 366 Performance Degradation......Page 369 Expanders in Cryogenic Applications......Page 370 Hot Gas Expanders......Page 374 Thermodynamics of Gas Expanders......Page 375 References......Page 377 Section III: Applications ......Page 378 Introduction......Page 379 Associated Gas (Flash Gas) Compression......Page 380 Nonassociated Gas Compression......Page 381 Gas Lift......Page 383 Reinjection......Page 384 Gas Processing Plant......Page 385 Corrosion......Page 387 Changing Process Conditions......Page 388 References......Page 389 Midstream Activities......Page 390 Pipeline Design......Page 392 Station Piping Design......Page 395 Piping Supports, Thermal Stress, and Vibration Control......Page 396 Foot Print Size/Weight/Unbalanced Forces/Foundations......Page 397 Metering, Pressure Regulation, and Custody Transfer......Page 400 Storage Reservoirs......Page 401 Local and National Pipeline Regulations......Page 402 Further Reading......Page 403 References......Page 427 Refinery Applications......Page 404 LNG Production......Page 405 Compressor Configurations and Compressor Technology Milestones......Page 406 Compressor Technology Milestones......Page 407 Horizontally Split and Barrel Designs......Page 409 Back-to-Back LNG Compressor Designs......Page 410 Centrifugal Compressor Design and Performance......Page 412 Two-dimensional (2D) and 3D Impellers......Page 413 Machine Mach Number and Inlet Relative Mach Number......Page 414 Impeller Head per Stage......Page 415 Compressor Design Trade-offs and Compromises......Page 416 Aerodynamic Mismatching of Stages......Page 417 Mechanical Run Tests......Page 418 Performance Tests......Page 419 String Tests......Page 420 Auxiliary Compressors......Page 421 Fuel Gas Compression (FGC)......Page 422 Reciprocating Compressors......Page 429 Centrifugal Compressors......Page 430 Operational Considerations......Page 431 Reciprocating Compressors......Page 432 Pulsation Dampeners......Page 433 Cylinder Orifice Plates......Page 435 Mixed Compression......Page 436 Flow-Induced Excitation Analyses: FIV, AIV, and FIT......Page 437 System Dynamic Analyses......Page 440 Transient Surge in Centrifugal Compressor Systems......Page 441 Station Dynamics......Page 443 Rotordynamic Analyses......Page 445 Mechanical: Skid and Piping Analyses......Page 447 References......Page 448 Further Reading......Page 449 Motivation, Justification, and Objectives......Page 450 Pressure......Page 451 Vibration......Page 452 Data Acquisition......Page 454 Uncertainty and Error Sources......Page 455 Axial and Centrifugal Compressors......Page 456 Reciprocating Compressors......Page 459 Screw Compressors......Page 461 References......Page 462 Introduction......Page 463 Centrifugal Compressors......Page 464 Reciprocating Compressors......Page 465 Electric Motor Drives......Page 466 Steam Turbines......Page 467 Couplings......Page 468 Torque Convertors......Page 469 Instrumentation and Data......Page 470 Piping and Pressure Vessels......Page 471 Performance Testing and Inspection......Page 472 Rotordynamics......Page 473 Machinery Installation......Page 474 Health, Safety, and Fire......Page 475 Further Reading......Page 477 Section IV: Technology Developments ......Page 482 Introduction......Page 483 Wet Gas Defined in the Upper Limit......Page 484 Experimental Testing......Page 487 General Arrangement......Page 488 Liquid Injection......Page 490 Sealing on the Compressor......Page 495 Pressure, Temperature, and Flow Rate Measurement and Control......Page 496 Screw Type......Page 498 Screw Pumps in Wet Gas Conditions......Page 499 Additional Observed and Tested Issues......Page 501 Reciprocating Compressors......Page 502 Erosion......Page 503 Corrosion......Page 505 Damage From Liquid Slugging......Page 506 Mechanical Vibrations and Lube/Seal Oil Interactions With Wet Gas......Page 508 Lube/Seal Oil Interactions in Reciprocating Compressor Applications......Page 511 Difficulties in Testing......Page 512 Important Test Variables......Page 513 Effects of Liquid Distribution......Page 514 Liquid Distribution......Page 516 Liquid Distribution Inside a Rotating Impeller......Page 519 Compressor Leading Edge......Page 520 Inside Compressor Impeller......Page 523 Compressor Trailing Edge and Diffuser......Page 527 Experimental Research......Page 530 Direct Integration Approach......Page 532 Evaporation Performance Models......Page 533 Compressor Aerodynamic Performance......Page 534 Compressor Rotordynamics......Page 536 Liquid Separation......Page 537 Subsea Compression......Page 540 Subsea Requirements......Page 543 Subsea Compression System Concepts......Page 547 Compressor Internals......Page 550 Subsea Compressor Concepts......Page 551 Bearings......Page 552 Motor......Page 553 OneSubsea: WGC (Wet Gas Compressor)......Page 554 Hermetically Sealed and Oil-Free Compression......Page 555 Stator Windings Exposed to the Process Gas Versus Canned Windings......Page 557 High-Pressure Compressors......Page 558 High-Speed Drive Trains......Page 561 Integrated Separator Centrifugal Compressor......Page 563 Cooled Diaphragms for Centrifugal Compressors......Page 565 Subsurface Compression......Page 567 Advanced Seals......Page 570 Gas Bearings......Page 571 Additive Manufacturing......Page 572 Gas Property Testing......Page 574 Linear Motor Compressor......Page 576 Project Goal......Page 577 Technical Overview......Page 578 Advanced Pulsation Control for Reciprocating Compressors......Page 579 Advanced Reciprocating Compressor Valve Technology......Page 581 Surge Force Predictions......Page 582 Liquid Packing Seals for Reciprocating Compressors......Page 584 References......Page 586 Further Reading......Page 588 C......Page 589 D......Page 590 G......Page 591 I......Page 592 N......Page 594 R......Page 595 S......Page 596 W......Page 598 Back Cover......Page 600