Comprehensive Guide on Organic and Inorganic Solar Cells: Fundamental Concepts to Fabrication Methods

Description

Comprehensive Guide on Organic and Inorganic Solar Cells: Fundamental Concepts to Fabrication Methods is a one-stop, authoritative resource on all types of inorganic, organic and hybrid solar cells, including their theoretical background and the practical knowledge required for fabrication. With chapters rigorously dedicated to a particular type of solar cell, each subchapter takes a detailed look at synthesis recipes, deposition techniques, materials properties and their influence on solar cell performance, including advanced characterization methods with materials selection and experimental techniques. By addressing the evolution of solar cell technologies, second generation thin-film photovoltaics, organic solar cells, and finally, the latest hybrid organic-inorganic approaches, this book benefits students and researchers in solar cell technology to understand the similarities, differences, benefits and challenges of each device. Front Cover Comprehensive Guide on Organic and Inorganic Solar Cells Copyright Page Contents List of contributors Preface 1 Principle of photovoltaics 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Solar energy 1.3 Photovoltaic effect 1.4 Fundamentals of solar cells 1.5 Energy conversion of solar cells 1.6 Equivalent circuit of solar cells 1.7 Collection efficiency 1.8 Theoretical limit of efficiency 1.9 Classification of solar cells 1.9.1 First generation solar cells 1.9.2 Second generation solar cells 1.9.3 Third generation solar cells 1.10 Efficiency measurement 1.11 Summary Acknowledgments References Further reading 2 Organic solar cells 2.1 Introduction and working principles 2.1.1 Device performance characteristics 2.1.2 Single layer organic solar cells 2.1.3 Bilayer organic solar cells 2.1.4 Bulk-heterojunction organic solar cells 2.1.4.1 Operating principles of bulk heterojunction 2.2 Normal and inverted device structure configurations 2.3 Key factors behind organic photovoltaic cell efficiency 2.4 Ternary strategy of organic solar cells 2.5 Electron transparent layer 2.6 Hole transport layer 2.7 Electrode materials 2.8 Fabrication techniques 2.8.1 Solution processing 2.8.2 Device fabrication 2.8.3 Device characterization 2.9 Key challenges 2.10 Recommendations for future research works 2.11 Conclusions Acknowledgments References 3 Introduction of inorganic solar cells 3.1 Cadmium-telluride thin film solar cells 3.2 Copper indium gallium diselenide thin film solar cells 3.3 Copper zinc tin sulfide thin film solar cells 3.4 Novel chalcogenides and emerging photovoltaic technologies Subchapter 3.1 Cadmium telluride (CdTe) thin film solar cells 3.1.1 Introduction 3.1.1.1 Cadmium telluride as a solar cell material candidate 3.1.1.2 Basic properties of cadmium telluride 3.1.1.2.1 Physical properties 3.1.1.3 Structural properties 3.1.1.3.1 Thermal and mechanical properties 3.1.1.3.2 Optical properties 3.1.1.3.3 Electrical properties 3.1.1.4 Cadmium telluride thin film solar cells 3.1.1.5 Structure of cadmium telluride thin film solar cells 3.1.1.5.1 Substrate 3.1.1.5.2 Front contact 3.1.1.5.3 Cadmium sulfide window layer 3.1.1.5.4 Cadmium telluride absorber layer 3.1.1.5.5 CdCl2 treatment 3.1.1.5.6 Interdiffusion between cadmium sulfide and cadmium telluride 3.1.1.5.7 Back contact 3.1.1.6 Deposition techniques of cadmium telluride thin films 3.1.1.6.1 Physical vapor deposition 3.1.1.6.2 Sputtering 3.1.1.6.3 Close-spaced sublimation 3.1.1.6.4 Vapor transport deposition 3.1.1.6.5 Electrodeposition 3.1.1.6.6 Spray pyrolysis 3.1.1.7 Performance prospective of cadmium telluride thin film solar cells 3.1.1.8 Manufacturing of cadmium telluride thin film solar cells 3.1.1.9 Summary References Subchapter 3.2 Copper indium gallium selenide solar cells 3.2.1 Introduction to copper indium gallium selenide solar cells 3.2.2 Copper indium gallium selenide device fabrication 3.2.2.1 General structure 3.2.2.1.1 Substrates 3.2.2.1.2 Back contact 3.2.2.1.3 Absorber layer 3.2.2.1.4 Buffer layer 3.2.2.1.5 Window layer 3.2.2.2 Fabrication technology 3.2.2.2.1 Physical vapor deposition 3.22.2.1.1 Sputter deposition process 3.22.2.1.2 Thermal evaporation deposition process 3.22.2.1.3 Chemical bath deposition process 3.2.2.3 Material properties 3.2.2.3.1 Optical properties 3.22.3.1.4 Copper indium gallium selenide absorber layer 3.22.3.1.5 Cadmium sulfide buffer layer 3.2.2.3.2 Electrical properties 3.22.3.2.6 Copper indium gallium selenide absorber layer 3.22.3.2.7 Cadmium sulfide buffer layer 3.2.2.4 Heterojunction formation in copper indium gallium selenide solar cells 3.2.3 Conclusion References Subchapter 3.3 CZTS solar cells 3.3.1 Introduction to CZTS thin film solar cells 3.3.2 CZTS device architecture and fabrication techniques 3.3.2.1 Substrate 3.3.2.2 Molybdenum back contact 3.3.2.3 CZTS absorber layer 3.3.2.4 CdS buffer layer 3.3.2.5 i-ZnO (high resistive transparent layer), ITO (transparent conducting oxide) and Al (front contact) 3.3.3 CZTS thin films by RF-sputtering from single quaternary compound targets 3.3.3.1 Structural and surface morphological properties 3.3.3.2 Compositional and phase analysis 3.3.3.3 Electrical properties 3.3.3.4 Effects of natural oxidation on As-sputtered CZTS films 3.3.3.5 Sulfurization of CZTS precursor thin film 3.3.3.6 Optical and optoelectronic properties 3.3.3.6.1 Performance analysis of CZTS thin film solar cells 3.3.4 Performance of state-of-the-art CZTS thin film solar cells 3.3.5 Conclusion References Subchapter 3.4 Novel chalcogenides and their fabrication techniques 3.4.1 Introduction 3.4.2 History of transition metal dichalcogenides 3.4.3 Crystal structures and physical properties 3.4.3.1 Lattice structure 3.4.3.2 1T, 2H, and 3R phases 3.4.3.3 Band structure 3.4.3.4 Electronic properties 3.4.4 Optical properties 3.4.5 Fabrication of transition metal dichalcogenides 3.4.5.1 Mechanical exfoliation 3.4.5.2 Chemical synthesis 3.4.5.3 Chemical vapor deposition 3.4.5.4 Molecular beam epitaxy 3.4.5.5 Metal organic chemical vapor deposition 3.4.5.6 Sputtering 3.4.6 Applications of transition metal dichalcogenides materials 3.4.7 Conclusions References 4 Introduction to organic-inorganic hybrid solar cells References Subchapter 4.1 Dye-sensitized solar cells 4.1.1 Working principle 4.1.2 Photoanode 4.1.2.1 Titanium oxide 4.1.2.1.1 TiO2 doped with metallic cations 4.1.2.1.2 TiO2 doped with nonmetallic anions 4.1.2.2 Zinc oxide 4.1.2.2.1 ZnO doped with metallic cations 4.1.2.2.2 ZnO doped with nonmetallic anions 4.1.2.3 Tin oxide (SnO2) 4.1.2.4 Tungsten oxide (WO3) 4.1.2.5 Fabrication methods 4.1.2.5.1 Spin coating 4.1.2.5.2 Dip coating 4.1.2.5.3 Doctor blade printing 4.1.2.5.4 Screen printing 4.1.3 Dye 4.1.3.1 Inorganic dyes 4.1.3.2 Organic dyes 4.1.3.3 Natural dyes 4.1.4 Counter electrode 4.1.4.1 Bulk Pt as the counter electrode 4.1.4.1.1 Pt nanoparticles 4.1.4.1.2 Pt composite materials 4.1.4.2 Carbon materials 4.1.4.2.1 Mesoporous carbon 4.1.4.2.2 Graphene 4.1.4.3 Gr-based composites 4.1.4.3.1 Graphene-polymer combined material 4.1.4.3.2 Graphene–carbon composites 4.1.4.4 Polymer materials 4.1.4.5 Alternative materials 4.1.5 Electrolyte 4.1.5.1 Traditional liquid electrolytes 4.1.5.2 Ionic liquids as electrolytes 4.1.5.3 Quasi-solid electrolytes 4.1.5.3.1 Composite polymer electrolytes 4.1.5.3.2 Thermoplastic polymer electrolyte 4.1.5.3.3 Thermosetting polymer electrolyte 4.1.5.3.4 Ionic liquid polymer electrolyte 4.1.5.4 Fabrication techniques Acknowledgments References Subchapter 4.2 Quantum dot-sensitized solar cells 4.2.1 Introduction 4.2.2 Device mechanism 4.2.3 Quantum dot-sensitized solar cells components and materials selection 4.2.3.1 Photoanode 4.2.3.2 Counterelectrode (cathode) 4.2.3.3 Electrolyte 4.2.4 Fabrication techniques 4.2.4.1 In situ methods 4.2.4.1.1 Chemical bath deposition 4.2.4.1.2 Successive ionic layer adsorption and reaction 4.2.4.2 Ex situ methods 4.2.4.2.1 Direct adsorption 4.2.4.2.2 Electrophoretic deposition 4.2.4.2.3 Molecule linker attachment 4.2.4.3 Other methods 4.2.5 Challenges 4.2.6 Future prospect References Subchapter 4.3 Organometal halide perovskite photovoltaics 4.3.1 Introduction 4.3.1.1 Structure and materials properties of perovskite materials 4.3.1.2 Device structures and working principle 4.3.1.3 Characterization of solar cells 4.3.1.3.1 Current–voltage characteristics 4.3.1.4 Chronological development of perovskite solar cells 4.3.1.5 Charge transporting materials for perovskite solar cells 4.3.1.5.1 The role of the electron transport layer 4.3.1.5.2 TiO2 preparation methods 4.3.1.5.3 Commonly used TiO2, SnO2, ZnO, and fullerene derivatives as ETLs 4.3.1.5.3.1 TiO2 thin film 4.3.1.5.3.2 SnO2 thin film 4.3.1.5.3.3 ZnO thin film 4.3.1.5.3.4 Organic fullerene derivatives 4.3.1.5.4 The role of hole transport layer 4.3.1.5.4.1 Organic spiro-OMeTAD as the hole-transporting layer 4.3.1.5.4.2 Organic PEDOT: PSS as the hole-transporting layer 4.3.1.5.4.3 Poly[bis(4-phenyl) (2,4,6-trimethylphenyl)] amine (PTAA) as the hole-transporting layer 4.3.1.5.4.4 Inorganic and other types of the hole-transporting layers 4.3.1.6 Fabrication methods for a perovskite absorber layer 4.3.1.6.1 Wet/or solution processing (spin coating) 4.3.1.6.2 Dry processing (vacuum deposition) 4.3.1.7 The role of ionic liquids to produce high-quality perovskite films 4.3.2 Summary and future outlook Declaration of competing interests Acknowledgments References Subchapter 4.4 Optics in high efficiency perovskite tandem solar cells 4.4.1 Introduction 4.4.2 Fundamentals of tandem solar cells 4.4.2.1 Tandem solar cells and working mechanism 4.4.2.2 Detailed balance theory and efficiency limit 4.4.2.3 Photon management and quantum efficiency 4.4.3 Scientific challenges for monolithic 2-terminal tandem solar cells 4.4.3.1 Front contact 4.4.3.2 Interconnection layer 4.4.3.3 Conformal deposition of the top cell integration 4.4.3.4 Current matching and optimization 4.4.3.5 Material bandgap selection 4.4.4 Device structure, film growth, and interface morphology 4.4.5 Optics of perovskite/silicon tandem solar cells 4.4.6 Fabrication of perovskite/silicon tandem solar cells 4.4.7 Final remarks and prospects Acknowledgments References 5 Commercial viability of different photovoltaic technologies 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Photovoltaic performance 5.3 Stability and reliability 5.3.1 Climate and technology 5.4 Failure and degradation modes 5.4.1 Solar cell degradation 5.4.2 Photovoltaic module failure 5.4.2.1 Delamination 5.4.2.2 Corrosion 5.4.2.3 Hot-spot failures 5.4.2.4 Potential induced degradation 5.4.2.5 Encapsulant failure or discoloration 5.4.2.6 Permanent soiling 5.4.2.7 Glass breakage 5.4.2.8 Frame deformation 5.4.3 System failure 5.4.3.1 ByPass diode failure 5.4.3.2 Inverter failure 5.5 Scale-up possibilities towards lifetime and reliability 5.6 Conclusions Acknowledgments References Conclusion Index Back Cover