Sustainable Management of Wastes Through Co-processing

Description

This book is the first comprehensive book in the world on co-processing of wastes as Alternative Fuels and Raw materials (AFRs) in cement kilns. It discusses how AFR from wastes can play an important role in contributing toward reducing the use of fossil fuel and costs while conserving natural resources, lowering global CO2 emissions, and reducing the need for landfills. The use of AFR in resource and energy-intensive industries is called co-processing, which is discussed in detail highlighting both advantages and disadvantages. Co-processing in cement kilns is a technology that is practiced globally on a large scale for environmentally sound and ecologically sustaining management of wastes from agricultural, industrial, and municipal sources. Considerable amount of scientific and technological advancements has been put in place while developing and implementing this technology at the cement plant operational scales. This technology is in practice for about 40 years or so and has been recommended by Basel Convention for the sustainable management of hazardous wastes and by the Stockholm Convention for the sustainable management of POPs. This technology has now been included in the waste management rules notified by the Ministry of the Government of India and has been provided as a preferred option for the management of wastes over the conventional options of incineration and landfill. The book addresses how co-processing promotes mitigation of the climate change impacts and also conservation of the natural capital in addition to building a circular economy on a large scale. Even though this technology has received required attention and inclusion in the policy framework of many governments, its understanding and awareness with the stakeholders belonging to the academic and other relevant sections are vastly missing. The book will enhance the knowledge of co-processing technology among stakeholders involved in the implementation of the policy framework, design and engineering of the waste processing facilities to suit the co-processing operation, their operation and management, environmental consideration in implementing co-processing, operation and management of the cement plant, quality control, etc. In addition, the book will be useful for students and researchers working in this domain. Preface Acknowledgements Contents About the Authors Abbreviations List of Figures List of Tables Part I Introducing the Subject 1 Introduction 1.1 Backdrop 1.1.1 Sustainable Development and Waste Management 1.2 Co-processing in 70 and 80s 1.3 Co-processing in 90s Until 2010 1.4 Co-processing in Post 2011 1.5 National Rules, Regulations, Standards Supporting Co-processing 1.6 Criteria for the Success of an Alternative Fuel Project 1.7 The Structure of This Book References 2 Terms and Definition Related to Co-processing of Waste in Cement Kiln 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Materials-Related Terms and Definitions 2.3 Process and System-Related Terms and Definitions 2.3.1 Legal and Permission-Related Terms and Definitions 2.4 Infrastructure-Related Terms and Definitions 2.5 Stakeholder-Related Terms and Definitions References Part II Literature Review 3 Status Review of Research on Co-processing 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Feedstock and Raw Materials for Co-processing 3.2.1 Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) 3.2.2 Spent Pot Liner Waste 3.2.3 Hazardous Waste 3.2.4 Biomass Waste 3.2.5 Tyre Waste 3.2.6 Summary of Energy Available From Different Waste Streams 3.3 Guiding Principles for Co-processing of Waste in Cement Plant 3.4 Previous Research on Co-processing and Allied Fields 3.5 Co-processing Supply Chain Issues and Challenges 3.6 Sustainable Development and Sustainability Index of Recovery (SIR) of Different Waste Treatment Technologies 3.7 Scopes of Co-processing in the Indian Cement Industry 3.8 Conclusion References Part III Cement: Theory, Production Technology and Operations 4 Cement Manufacturing—Technology, Practice, and Development 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Main Process Description 4.2.1 Quarrying 4.2.2 Raw Materials Preparation 4.2.3 Fuel Preparation 4.2.4 Manufacturing of Cement Clinker 4.2.5 Cement Grinding 4.2.6 Cement Dispatch 4.3 Characteristics of Material Used in Cement Production 4.3.1 Raw Mix Constituents 4.3.2 Usage of Fuels 4.4 Different Cement Manufacturing Processes 4.4.1 The Dry Process 4.4.2 The Semi-Dry Process 4.4.3 The Semi-Wet Process 4.4.4 The Wet Process 4.4.5 Vertical Shaft Kiln 4.5 Kiln Exhaust Gases 4.6 Fuel Processing 4.7 Preparation of Pozzolanic and Mineral Materials 4.8 Specific Features of Cement Production Process 4.9 Cement Production in Developing Countries References 5 Fundamentals of Cement Chemistry, Operations, and Quality Control 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Replacement of Conventional Materials with AFRs 5.3 Chemical Analysis Associated in Cement Manufacture 5.4 Cement Chemistry and Manufacturing Principles 5.4.1 Raw Mix Parameters 5.4.2 Raw Meal to Clinker Factor 5.4.3 Clinker Composition 5.4.4 Alumina Modulus AM 5.4.5 Silica Modulus SM 5.4.6 Lime Saturation Factor (LSF) 5.4.7 Hydraulic Modulus (HM) 5.4.8 Bogue’s Formula for Cement Constituents 5.5 Operational Parameters 5.5.1 Degree of Calcination 5.5.2 Loss on Ignition 5.5.3 % Liquid 5.5.4 Sulphur to Alkali Ratio 5.5.5 Free Lime 5.5.6 Excess Sulphur (Gm SO3 / 100 Gm Clinker) 5.5.7 Blending Ratio 5.5.8 Ash Absorption 5.5.9 Kiln Feed to Clinker Factor 5.5.10 Clinker to Cement Factor 5.5.11 Insoluble Residue 5.5.12 Volumetric Loading of Kiln 5.5.13 Thermal Loading of Kiln 5.5.14 Feed Moisture Evaporation Rate 5.5.15 False Air Estimation O2 Method 5.5.16 % Excess Air 5.6 Thermal Parameters 5.7 Burner Parameters 5.8 Conclusions References Part IV Co-processing: Guidelines, Sustainability and Legislation 6 Guidelines on Pre-processing and Co-processing of AFRs—International Best Practices 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Important Operational Aspects 6.3 Waste Evaluations 6.4 Waste Collection, Handling, and Transport 6.5 Waste Reception and Handling 6.5.1 Management of Non-Compliant Deliveries 6.5.2 Analysing Incoming Wastes 6.5.3 Reception and Handling 6.5.4 Labelling 6.6 Waste Pre-Treatment and Pre-Processing 6.6.1 Types of AFRs 6.6.2 Pre-Processing of AFRs 6.6.3 Segregation of Waste Types for Safe Processing 6.6.4 General Design Considerations 6.6.5 Waste Storage 6.6.6 Best Available Techniques (BAT) and Best Environmental Practice (BEP) 6.6.7 Co-processing of AFRs 6.6.8 Cement Quality 6.6.9 Emission Monitoring 6.6.10 Test Burn and Performance Verification References 7 Sustainability Considerations in Cement Manufacturing and Co-processing 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) 7.3 Cement Sustainability Initiative (CSI) 7.4 CSI and Low-Carbon Technology Road (LCTR) Map 7.5 GCCA and Getting Numbers Right 7.6 Carbon Footprint 7.6.1 Scope 1 Emissions 7.6.2 Scope 2 Emissions 7.6.3 Scope 3 Emissions 7.7 Conservation of Natural Resources and Circular Economy 7.8 Reduction in Emissions 7.9 Water Conservation and Harvesting 7.10 Plastic Packaging 7.11 Biodiversity 7.12 Challenges Faced in Implementing Sustainability Initiatives 7.13 Sustainability and Co-processing 7.14 Conclusions References 8 Waste Management Rules in India and Other Countries Focussing on Co-processing 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Environmental Regulation and Legal Framework in India—Constitutional Perspective 8.3 Indian Legislative Framework Related to Environmental Protection 8.4 Important Acts Related to Environment and Co-processing 8.4.1 The Indian Factories Act 1948 8.4.2 The Water Act 1974 8.4.3 The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980 8.4.4 The Air Act 1981 8.4.5 Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 (EPA) 8.4.6 Motor Vehicle Act 1988 8.4.7 Public Liability Insurance Act (PLIA), 1991 8.4.8 National Environment Tribunal Act, 1995 8.4.9 The National Environmental Appellate Authority Act, 1997 8.5 Important Rules Related to Environment and Co-processing in India 8.5.1 Hazardous and Other Waste (Management and Trans-Boundary Movement) Rules, 2016 8.5.2 Plastic Waste Management Rules 2016 8.5.3 Solid Waste Management Rules, 2016 8.6 Environment Policy Framework of India and Option of Co-processing 8.7 Co-processing Related Documents Published by Different Agencies Internationally 8.8 Recognition of Co-processing by Different Global Bodies 8.8.1 UNEP 8.8.2 SINTEF 8.8.3 GIZ 8.8.4 ADEME 8.8.5 MOEFCC, Government of India 8.8.6 Five-Year Plan on Ecology and Environment Protection, China Government 8.9 Co-processing Related Regulations in Different Countries 8.9.1 European Union 8.9.2 Japan 8.9.3 United States of America 8.9.4 Brazil 8.9.5 South Africa 8.9.6 China 8.10 Conclusion References Part V Co-processing, Pre-processing and AFR in Cement Kiln: Operations, Maintenance and Emission Controls 9 Emission Considerations in Cement Kiln Co-processing 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Different Kinds of Emissions Encountered During Thermal Treatment of Fossil Fuels and Wastes 9.2.1 Particulate Emissions 9.2.2 Acidic Emissions 9.2.3 GHG Emissions 9.2.4 VOC Emissions 9.2.5 Heavy Metal Emissions 9.2.6 Dioxin and Furan Emissions 9.2.7 Other Toxic Emissions 9.3 Description of the Cement Kiln Co-processing Operation 9.4 Impact of Co-processing on the Emissions from the Cement Kiln 9.5 Monitoring of the Emissions from the Cement Kiln 9.6 Notified Emission Standards for the Cement Kilns in Different Countries 9.7 Conclusion References 10 Co-processing of Wastes as AFRs in Cement Kilns 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Co-processing of Wastes as AFRs in the Cement Kilns 10.3 Cement Kiln Operation 10.4 Important Aspects in Respect of Co-processing 10.4.1 TSR 10.4.2 AFR/Waste Profile 10.5 Salient Features of Cement Kiln Co-processing Technology 10.5.1 Zero Waste Technology 10.5.2 Kiln Emissions are Not Influenced 10.5.3 Acidic Gases Get Absorbed in the Calcined Lime 10.5.4 Dioxins and Furans 10.5.5 Heavy Metals Get Fixed in the Clinker 10.5.6 High Efficiency in Material and Energy Recycling 10.5.7 Reduction in Global Emissions 10.5.8 Local and Cheaper Solution for the Local Problem 10.6 Different Kinds of Wastes Suitable for Co-processing 10.6.1 Municipal Sector 10.6.2 Industrial Sector 10.6.3 Agricultural Sector 10.7 Items Which Cannot/Should Not Be Co-processed 10.7.1 Items that Can Be Co-Processed Only After Pre-processing 10.7.2 Items that Cannot Be Pre-Processed or Co-processed 10.8 Typical Examples of AFRs and Their Sources 10.9 Important Considerations for Smooth and Successful Co-processing 10.9.1 Pre-Processing of Wastes into AFRs 10.9.2 Monitoring and Control of AFRs While Co-processing 10.9.3 Emission Monitoring During Co-processing 10.9.4 Permissions for Co-processing of Wastes 10.10 Principles of Co-processing 10.11 Co-processing Technology 10.11.1 Receipt of Waste/AFR Material 10.11.2 Quality Assessment of Incoming Waste/AFR Material 10.11.3 Storage of Waste/AFR Materials 10.11.4 Pre-Processing of the AFR Material 10.11.5 Feeding the AFR Material into Kiln for Co-processing 10.11.6 Flow Schemes for Co-processing of AFRs with Different Feeding Arrangements 10.12 Other Relevant Considerations in Co-processing 10.12.1 Statutory Considerations 10.12.2 Liability Considerations 10.12.3 Sustainability Considerations 10.13 Challenges Faced in Co-processing of AFRs 10.13.1 Specifications and Availability of the AFR Materials 10.13.2 Increase in the Specific Thermal Energy Consumption 10.13.3 Impact on the Emissions from the Kiln 10.13.4 Coating in the Preheater Section of the Kiln 10.14 Conclusion References 11 Pre-processing of Wastes into AFRs 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Permitting 11.3 Unit Operations in Pre-processing 11.3.1 Size Reduction or Shredding 11.3.2 Drying 11.3.3 Impregnation 11.3.4 Bailing 11.3.5 Segregation 11.3.6 Blending 11.4 Waste Acceptance Criteria 11.5 Salient Features of the AFR Pre-processing Facility 11.5.1 Entry Gate 11.5.2 Weigh Bridge 11.5.3 Laboratory 11.5.4 Storage Shed 11.5.5 Pre-processing Plant and Machinery 11.5.6 Environmental and Safety Provisions 11.6 Other Pre-processing Options 11.7 Production of Alternative Fuels by Pre-processing and Supply to Cement Plants 11.8 Pre-processing of Different Kinds of Wastes into AFRs 11.8.1 Pre-processing of Solid Wastes 11.8.2 Pre-processing of Sludges 11.9 Management of Drums and Other Packaging Types 11.10 Conclusion References 12 Operational Considerations in Co-processing 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Operational Guidelines for Co-processing 12.2.1 Sustainability 12.2.2 Legal Aspects 12.2.3 Acceptance Process of Wastes and AFRs 12.2.4 Manpower 12.2.5 Operation and Management 12.2.6 Emergency Management 12.2.7 External Communications 12.2.8 Design Considerations 12.2.9 Material Receipt and Storage 12.2.10 Material Handling and Feeding Systems 12.2.11 Material of Non-Compliant Deliveries 12.2.12 Quality Control 12.2.13 Process Control for AFRs 12.2.14 Management of the Co-processing Activity 12.3 Technical Considerations for Successful Co-processing 12.3.1 Raw Mix Design 12.3.2 Alkalis, SO3, and Chloride Balance 12.3.3 Chlorine Limits in Clinker 12.3.4 Fuel Mix Design 12.3.5 Burner Momentum 12.3.6 Odour Control 12.3.7 Occupational Health Hazards and Safety Aspects 12.4 Conclusions References Part VI Co-processing: Business Models, Case Studies, Global Scenario, Growth and Advocacy 13 Case Studies and Business Models in Pre and Co-processing 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Economic Parameters Utilized in Co-processing Business 13.2.1 Production Cost of Clinker Manufacture 13.2.2 Transport Costs 13.2.3 Gate/Tipping Fee 13.2.4 Price of AFR 13.2.5 Savings from Use of AFR 13.2.6 Cost of the Pre-processing Facility 13.2.7 Cost of the Co-processing Facility 13.3 Principles of AFR Business 13.4 Concepts Related to Costs, Prices and Viability of Use of AFRs 13.4.1 Cost of Natural Raw Material 13.4.2 Cost of Natural Fuel 13.4.3 Operation and Management Cost 13.4.4 Resource Replacement Cost 13.5 Business Models with Pre-processing and Co-processing 13.5.1 Business Model—Elementary Co-processing Facility for Solid AFRs 13.5.2 Business Model—Elementary Pre-processing and Co-processing Facility for Solid AFRs 13.5.3 Business Model—Mechanized Co-processing Facility 13.5.4 Business Model—Mechanized Pre-processing and Co-processing Facility 13.5.5 Co-processing Facility for Liquid AFRs 13.5.6 Co-processing of Alternative Raw Materials Through Raw Meal 13.6 Conclusion Reference 14 Global Status of Co-processing 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Status of Co-processing in Cement Industry in Different Countries 14.2.1 Country Average TSR% of Different Countries 14.2.2 Volume of Alternative Fuels Co-processed by Different Countries 14.2.3 Additional Evaluations on the Global Status of Co-processing 14.3 Country Specific Status on Co-processing 14.4 Conclusion References 15 Journey of the Growth of Co-processing in India 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Stakeholder Engagement and Policy Advocacy 15.2.1 Stakeholder Engagement 15.2.2 Policy Advocacy 15.3 Journey—2003–2008 15.4 Journey 2008–2020 15.4.1 Demonstration of Co-processing Technology for the Sustainable Management of Wastes 15.4.2 Stakeholder Awareness and Advocacy Initiatives on Co-processing Technology 15.4.3 Notification of Rules, Emission Standards, Monitoring Protocol, and Guidelines 15.4.4 Status of Co-processing in India 15.5 Case Studies of Cement Companies 15.6 Conclusion References Appendix Bibliography